October RevolutionAfter the victory, the Soviet Communist Party led the people to start a large-scalesocialistConstruction has promoted the development of social productivity, greatly improved the comprehensive national strength, and become the second largest country in the world after the United StatesEconomies。[43]The Soviet Union was involved in 1941World War II, BurstPatriotic War，[46]Occupy on April 30, 1945Berlin, May 8, the same yearNazi Germany Surrender.[47]Together with the United States, they became the two strongest countries in the world at that time, known asSuperpower。In 1955, for confrontationNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization, establishedWarsaw Treaty Organization，Cold WarThe pattern is fully formed.In the early 1980s, the economic growth slowed down and the national strength gradually lagged behindU.S.A。In the late 1980s,GorbachevThe reform of national liberalization and democratization failed.On August 19, 1991, the Soviet Union broke outAugust 19 Incident。On December 25,GorbachevResign as President and transfer power toYeltsin，The disintegration of the Soviet Union。[1]
The Soviet Union hadplay a decisive roleRole of.[42]In the field of science and technology, the Soviet UnionAerospaceAnd the United Statesracing together bridle to bridleA large number of scientific and technological forces and achievements are concentrated innuclear weapon、Missile、atomic energy、space technologyAnd other cutting-edge departments.[45]Militarily, the Soviet Union maintained a large number of troops and weapons throughout the year, and stationed troops in many parts of the world.staynuclear energyAspects andU.S.AAt basically the same level.[44]
For any country, war is a very serious matter.At the beginning of World War II, the Soviet Union had experienced a war of "losing everything in one careless move".Although the Soviet Union won the victory in the end, it also exposed its serious defects. It was invaded by Nazi Germany 15 months after the war, and the country fell into the flames of war.... Details
Content from
Chinese name
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Foreign name
Союз Советских Социалистических Республик(Russian) Union of Soviet Socialist Republics(English)
The full name of the Soviet Union is "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics"（Russian: Сожсоветских Софиалистических Республик, English: Union of Socialist Republics).[63]soviet(Russian: совет)The word "Soviet" is a transliteration of Russian into Chinese, which means "representative meeting" or "conference". "Soviet" is created by the Russian working people in the process of revolutionary struggleOrganizational form of political power, which originated from the representative conference directly elected by workers and uprising soldiers during the Russian Revolution in 1905, called "Soviet".[62]November 7, 1917(October 25, Russian calendar)The October Socialist Revolution broke out and the world's firstSocialist countryRegime——Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic(In Russian: Россияй скаяСовежтскаяФедератижвнаяСолистиж сескаяФедерати внаяСолисти ческа Респу блика, abbreviated as РСФСР).[61]On October 6, 1922, at the plenary session of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik), Lenin's proposal to establish a new country was adopted.On December 30 of the same yearMoscow Grand TheaterThe first Soviet Congress of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was held, at which the Declaration on the Establishment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Union Treaty were adopted.[60]
the First World WarAfter the outbreak,Russian RevolutionThe situation is rapidly maturing.[53]In March 1917,Russian EmpireburstFebruary Revolution, resulting inczarStepping down, the russian empire disintegrated.Appearsbourgeois classRepresentatives of the Provisional Government and workers and soldierssovietCoexistence.In April, Lenin returned from abroad and published《April Theses 》, proposed frombourgeois-democratic revolutioncarry out the transition tosocialist revoltionTasks for.According to Lenin's instructions,Bolshevik PartyThey actively publicized among the masses and led workers and soldiers to demonstrate for many times.9. In October, the revolutionary situation was fully mature and the liberation movement was at an all-time high.[53]Seized power from the provisional government on November 7, 1917, known as“October Revolution”。
After the revolution, the country was renamedRussian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic, short forSoviet Russia。Late in the night of November 7, the Second Congress of the All Russian Soviet EngineersSmolny PalaceConvening.On November 8, the meeting adopted and announced the Letter of Appeal to Workers, Soldiers and Farmers drafted by Lenin《decrees of peace》And《Land Ordinance 》。The Peace Decree advises the warring governments and people to end the war and conclude a peace treaty without ceding land or paying reparations.The Land Act provides for the abolition of landlordsPrivate ownership of land, ImplementationState land ownershipAnd allocate land to working farmers for farming.The meeting solemnly declared that all political power belonged to the Soviet Union, and the provisional government of workers and peasants was elected——People's Committee。Lenin was elected Chairman of the People's Committee.[53]
From November 7 to 16, the Soviet regimeMoscowEstablish.From November 1917 to February and March 2018, the Soviet regime was established throughout the country, first in cities and then in villages.The establishment of the October RevolutionsocialistAnd set up the Supreme National Economic Commission as the national economic administration organ.establishWorkers' and Peasants' Red ArmyWorkers' police and people's courts.Establish engineering, soldier and peasant representative Soviet organs andPeople's Committee Department。
In January 1918, the Third All Russian Soviet Congress was held and approved《Declaration on the Rights of Exploited Workers》, Russia was officially declared as an engineering peasant representing the Soviet Republic.Working people become masters of the country.implementLand nationalization, eliminate national oppression, abolish hierarchy, hierarchical privileges and hierarchical restrictions, and declare that all residents are citizens, ensuring the leadership of the proletariat over the country and education.The October Revolution produced the world's firstproletarian dictatorshipChina has ushered in a new era of world proletarian revolution and a new era of national democratic revolution in colonial and semi colonial areas under the leadership of the proletariat.After the October Revolution, the struggle for liberation of the proletariat, the oppressed people and the oppressed nations in all countries has flourished.[53]
Consolidate political power
Foreign military intervention in Soviet Russia
On November 11, 1918,the First World WarAfter that, Britain, France, Japan, Poland, the United States and other countries unilaterally withdrew from theGerman EmpireThe Russian revolution was intervened by armed forces because of the war of the Soviet Union and the debts of the tsarist Russia.There are a large number of white troops in China, occupying an extremely vast areaGolchak、AntonIvanovichDenikin 、Frankel、UdenichAnd other leaders in various places, launched a campaign against the Russian Soviet RepublicSoviet Russian Civil War。The ethnic minorities in the former Russian Empire took the opportunity of the Russian civil war to establish several independent sovereign states.After nearly four years of Russian civil war, in 1921,Bolshevik PartyThe Soviet Red Army under the leadership defeatedWhite Army, executed Gorchak and drove Dunnigin, Frankel, Udennicki and others out of the country;And defeated the joint armed intervention of foreign forces, forcing the United States, Britain and France toLeningrad, Ukraine andTranscaucasiaWithdrawal, forcing the United States and Japan fromSiberiaThe withdrawal protected the new Soviet regime and made it survive.
From the end of 1917 to the beginning of 1918,Leninaccording toSoviet Russia At that time, the domestic and international situation, when estimating the possible development path, believed that the development path of revolution and struggle could be short, or long and arduous.In the summer of 1918CzechoslovakiaThe rebellion of the army and the outbreak of civil war forced Russia to carry out“War Communism ”，State capitalismThen it is interrupted.
After the end of the civil war, Russia began to implement the policy in the spring of 1921new economic policy。The essence of the new economic policy is state capitalism.Lenin's new economic policy in his lifetime can be divided into two stages.The first stage was from March to October 1921. The new economic policy was fromGrain taxreplaceSurplus grain collection systemStarted.Grain tax is the way that the state uses tax revenue to ask farmers for free.But the grain obtained by means of taxation is not enough to barely support the army and industrial enterprises.At the same time, the grain tax also stipulates that the surplus grain and other products left by farmers after the completion of the grain tax can be used for free exchange, either with the products of socialist factories (or commodity exchange), or among small owners, that is, free trade.[50]In the first stage of the new economic policy, although state capitalism had begun to be implemented, it was still restricted to local and non-state sectors.In the second stage, state-owned enterprises also changed their careerseconomic accountingThat is to say, the market operation mode is implemented, and the whole societycommodity productionAnd are exchanged foreconomical operation And everything in the economic fieldBusiness entityAll inMarket relationsIt has formed a complete national capitalist system.So far, Lenin's second hypothesis in the spring of 1918 has become a scientific theory after being revised and tested in practice.At the same time, Lenin's line of state capitalism was finally formed.[51]
The Soviet Union was founded
After the October Revolution, all ethnic groups in Russia established their own independent countries orautonomous republic。During the civil war, in order to fight against the common enemy,Russian federationwithUkraine、Belarus、Azerbaijan、Armenia、GeorgiaA military political alliance has been established.With the end of the civil war, the recovery of the national economy and the beginning of the socialist construction period, the Communist Party of the Soviet republics raised the issue of unity in order to unify national defense construction and economic construction.
Sign the Alliance Treaty
In August 1922, the Central Committee of the United Communist Party (Bolshevik) set up a special committee chaired by Stalin to propose a plan for the Soviet republics to join the Russian Federation as autonomous republics.The Georgian leaders opposed this plan and were treated roughly.Lenin, who was ill, immediately wrote a letter to the Political Bureau of the Central Committee, severely criticizing the "autonomy" plan and some people'sGreat power chauvinismError.Lenin suggested that all Soviet republics join the Union of Soviet Republics on the principle of equality and voluntariness.According to Lenin's proposal, a new document was discussed and adopted at the plenary session of the Central Committee in October 1922, which was warmly responded to and supported by the parties of the Soviet Socialist Republics and the Soviet organs.[77]
On December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (hereinafter referred to as the Soviet Union), composed of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Transcaucasian Federation, was officially established.Those who joined the Soviet Union at that time wereRussia、South Caucasus Federation、UkraineandBelarusAnd other 4 joined republics.The Alliance Treaty adopted by the Congress stipulates that the Union Soviet Congress is the highest organ of state power,Soviet People's CommitteeIt is the executive organ.The treaty also specifically stipulates that each participating republic reserves the right to withdraw from the alliance freely.[77]
Step into a powerful country
After Lenin's death, the Soviet Union was faced with several major problems. The most prominent one was the leadership problem, and the other was the policy shift, that is, how to continue to develop socialism in what form. These two problems were often intertwined, and the result wasStalinThe firm establishment of the highest leadership position andStalinist Model Formation of.[54]
Shortly after Lenin's death, Stalin andTrotskyThe conflict between the two parties was made public.In order to prevent Trotsky from seizing the supreme power, he also used Trotsky toZinovievandLev Kamenev Stalin formed an alliance with the latter two.The three men quickly dismissed Trotsky from his main post on the pretext of their previous differences with Lenin.Soon, due to the divergence of the socialist line, Stalin defeated the opponentsZinovievAnd Gaminiev.After defeating three men, Stalin proposed his constructionsocialistThe theory of the Soviet Union generally includes the following points: first, the Soviet Union can build socialism independently; second, economic and administrative planning; third, priority developmentheavy industryFourth, high accumulation and high investment require light industry and agriculture to make sacrifices for heavy industry, which is closely related to the third point.Trotsky, Zinoviev and their supporters opposed this approach, and they formedTOKYI UnionOppose Stalin, but their plan is not advisable.So, in December 1927, the 15th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (Bolshevik) defeated these people and eliminated them from the organization.[54]
Stalin, who led the industrialization of the Soviet Union
Under the leadership of Stalin,Communist Party of the Soviet UnionThe Soviet Union's mode of economic production was greatly transformed, and the Soviet Union was transformed into a powerful country in heavy industry and military, becoming the first economic power in Europe and the second in the world.In January 1928, Stalin arrived in personSiberiaI went to collect grain from farmers and proposed for the first timeCollective farmThe issue has become a top priority, which actually changed the resolution of the 15th National Congress of the Communist Party of China, which just ended in December 1927.Although the 15th National Congress of the Communist Party of China raised the issue of transition to mass production, it followed Lenin's principle of cooperation, emphasizing voluntariness and state help, rather than comprehensively carrying out the collectivization movement, let alone the word "collective farm".In April 1928, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (Bolshevik) and the Central Supervisory Committee held a joint meeting, which did not adopt Stalin's resolution on accelerating the construction of collective farms and reaffirmed the adherence to the new economic policy."On the development of the national economyFive year plan”He said that in 1933, the sown area of the public economy in agriculture would increase to 26 million hectares, accounting for 17.5% of the total sown area. He acknowledged that the small-scale peasant economy still had potential for development and asked the Party and the State to help.However, Stalin continued to follow the path he identified and launched a large-scale collectivization movement. From the summer of 1929, the Soviet Union entered a period of overall collectivization.Later, the November Plenary Session of the Party confirmed the policy formulated by Stalin and changed the resolution of the 16th National Congress.By 1933, 99.8% of farmers had joined the collective farms.[52]
From 1932 to 1933,Holodomor in UkraineThe outbreak killed 2.5-4.8 million peopleAgricultural collectivizationThe policy partly exacerbated the spread of famine and hindered farmers' enthusiasm for production.UkraineAfter independence, Western politicians and some scholars believed that the Great Famine of 1932-1933 was the Soviet Union's response toUkraineEthnic cleansing and genocide.1937-1938, known as the Soviet Union“Heavy cleaning”Period.During this period, 1.3 million people were sentenced, 682000 of whom were shot dead.Many people in the military, economic, scientific and artistic circles were purged, and labor camps in the Soviet Union were eliminated（Gulag）There has also been a large increase in the number of citizens and overseas Chinese suspected of being "reactionaries" or "spies" who will be sent to reeducation through labor camps or even shot.Moreover, Stalin's purge campaign not only targeted the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the senior level of the Soviet army, but also affected ordinary Soviet people.
In the 1930s, the international situation has undergone considerable changes, an important manifestation of which isfascistThe expansion of power.In particular, German Japanese fascism threatened the security of the Soviet Union in the east and west, so the Soviet Union sought to improve relations with other countries to curb the forces of fascism."In the early 1930s, the Soviet Union put forward the strategic idea of establishing an international anti fascist united front... The Soviet Union vigorously adjusted its relations with Britain, France, the United States and other countries... The Central Committee of the Communist Party (Bolshevik) solemnly studied the policy and concept of collective security, and on December 12, 1933, adopted the policy of striving forcollective securityResolution of ".The so-called "collective security" is to establish a regional collective security system in Europe and Asia with other capitalist powers.Under the guidance of this thought, the Soviet Union made many diplomatic efforts, such as joiningLeague of Nations, and FranceCzechoslovakiaSign a treaty of friendship.However, Britain, France and the United States imposed fascism for various reasonsAppeasement policyTherefore, the Soviet Union's idea of establishing a collective security system did not materialize.Munich conspiracyLater, the relationship between the Soviet Union and the West deteriorated.In 1939, the Soviet Union held talks with Britain and France to build an anti fascist alliance.However, due to the conflict of national interests, the negotiations broke down.So soon the Soviet Union and Germany signed《Soviet-German Treaty of Non-Aggression》, signed a neutral treaty with Japan to protect their own security.[55]
Patriotic War
Since the 1930s,the WestAdopt“Appeasement policy”AppeaseHitler, which made the Soviet Union feel that the Western countries were trying to“Misfortune flows eastward”。On the contrary, the Soviet Union has repeatedly proposed to establish a common European defense system in alliance with Britain and France without success,Nazi Germany Foreign MinisterRibbentropHowever, he repeatedly raised the hope to improve the relations with the Soviet Union.In 1939, the Soviet Union adopted the strategy of "pushing the waters west" and finally signed a secret alliance with Germany《Soviet-German Treaty of Non-Aggression》。
Changes in the Western Border of the Soviet Union (1939-1940)
World War IIAfter the outbreak, according to the sphere of influence divided by the treaty, the Soviet Union "established the"Eastern Front ”In the name of GermanySecond Polish Republic , aggressionFinlandAnd occupyEastern EuropeSome regions.Estonia、Latvia、LithuaniaWas forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union, which accelerated its neighboring countries tofascistthe axisThe Soviet Union was unpopular at the beginning of World War II[2]。Launched by the Soviet Union in 1939Soviet Finnish WarAnd recaptured the land occupied by Finland at the expense of huge casualties.The Soviet Finnish War fully reflected the lack of training and equipment of Soviet soldiers.
Germany tore it up on June 22, 1941《Soviet-German Treaty of Non-Aggression》, the Soviet Union,Eastern Front Start.On December 6, 1941, the Soviet armyMoscowThe suburbs began to counter attack, and in late April of the next year, more than 50 German divisions were defeated, more than 800000 German soldiers were killed and wounded, the enemy troops were repulsed more than 150 kilometers, the threat to Moscow was lifted, and more than 60 cities were recaptured.Moscow DefenseThe victory declared the complete bankruptcy of Hitler's "blitzkrieg", shattered the German army's invincible myth since the beginning of World War II, and becameSoviet Patriotic WarA turning point.Between 1941 and 1945, Britain and Canada jointly provided about 1.5 million tons of military supplies and food to the Soviet Union[3]。
In early 1943,Soviet Red ArmyAfter tenacious resistance, obtainBattle of StalingradAfter the victory of the Soviet Union, the Soviet army took the initiative on the battlefield.
On February 2, 1944, the Soviet Union《Soviet Constitution》It has been revised. Article 18 of the new Constitution states: "Each participating republic has the right to directly develop relations with foreign countries, sign agreements and exchange diplomatic and consular representatives." The new Constitution also gives the participating republic the right to establish its own armed forces.In October, the Soviet Union annexed ChinaOuter MongoliaNorthwesternTannu Uriankhai Region.
At the end of World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States and Britain held a meeting on the pattern of the post-war worldYalta Conference。The leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom attended the Yalta Conference.After consultation, the three giants decided many issues concerning the major interests of other countries after the war.For example, in the "Far East issue", the Soviet Union sent troops to Northeast China after the end of the European war at the expense of China's interestsJapanese Kwantung ArmyOperational commitment.This is especially true in European affairs. The United States, Britain and the Soviet Union even privately demarcated their spheres of influence in Europe.yalta system A double compound order was created.On the one handthe United NationsCoreinternational orderThis is a general order applicable to the whole world, and it covers a wide range of issues, almost all of which are related to human life;On the other hand, it is the traditional order of great power competition, or the power order, which is mainly related to the relations between great powers, war and peace.The two orders interweave and restrict each other.[56]
the Second World WarLater, the Soviet Union became stronger and stronger, and its international position was greatly improved,Eastern EuropeUnder the influence of the Soviet Union, some countries embarkedsocialist road, coupled with the Soviet implementationideologyExporting, we tried our best to expand our power in Europe, and the contradiction between the United States and the Soviet Union was deepening.In April 1945,Harry Truman replaceFranklin Delano RooseveltSuccession of President.[58]On March 5, 1946, former British Prime Ministerwinston churchill The anti Soviet and anti communist speech delivered at Westminster College in Fulton, USA, used“Iron Curtain”The term "iron curtain" means to attack the Soviet Union and eastern European socialist countries, so this speech is called“Iron Curtain Speech”。The Iron Curtain Speech is also considered as the official openingTwilight Struggle The prologue of.Then,turkeyandGreeceThere is a crisis.In order to prevent these countries from becoming another "Iron Curtain" of the Communist Party and avoid the Secretary of StateDean Acheson As the saying goes, "a country that tends to communism will have a 'domino' effect around it", Truman put forward the later well-known containment policy -“Truman Doctrine”。[58]The "Truman Doctrine" openly extended the security interests of the United States to the whole world, making curbing communism the basic national policy of the United States, which was the symbol of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union.After intense debate, the US Congress passed the bill of "aiding Greece and Turkey against communism" on May 15.[57]
The confrontation between NATO and the Warsaw Pact
On August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested and exploded a 22000 ton TNTAtomic bombAnd become the second country to possess nuclear weapons after the United States[5]。《North Atlantic Treaty》After signing, in order to preventFederal GermanyjoinNATOThe Soviet Union once proposed to conclude a peace treaty with Germany, which was rejected by western countries.On October 23, 1954, the United States, Britain, France and other western countries signed《Paris Agreement》, decided to terminateFederal GermanyThe occupation of NATO absorbed it into NATO and allowed it to be rearmed.Under this circumstance, the eight countries, including the Soviet Union, held a meeting in Moscow from November 29 to December 2 to ensure peace and security for European countries, and declared that they would take common measures in organizing armed forces and establishing a joint command to ensure their own security.Soviet Union, Democratic Germany, Poland, RomaniaCzechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary and AlbaniaWarsawSigned《Warsaw Treaty》, and establishedWarsaw Treaty Organization。To provide for the undertaking by the States parties to settle their international disputes by peaceful means and to consult on all important international issues concerning their common interests;In the event of an armed attack in Europe by any country or group of countries against one or more States Parties, each State Party shall exercise the right of individual or collective self-defence in accordance with Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, individually or through agreement with other States Parties, and in all ways it deems necessary, including the use of armed forces,Give immediate assistance to a certain country or countries suffering from such attacks.[59]Cold WarThe confrontation finally took shape.
At the end of February 1953, Stalin had a sudden stroke at night.On March 5,The Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union、Communist Party of the Soviet UnionThe Central Committee and the Council of Ministers held emergency meetings,MalinkovHe became the chairman of the Council of Ministers, but Stalin's name still appeared in the list of members (the last one).Just after the meeting, Stalin wasKremlinDeath.
Khrushchev addressed the United Nations General Assembly
After Stalin's death, KhrushchevThe 20th National Congress of the Soviet Communist PartyLater, he gradually ascended to the peak of power.The 20th National Congress of the Soviet Communist Party pushed the domestic struggle against personality worship to a climax.At the same time, Khrushchev began to reform politics.It is mainly manifested in: strengthening collective leadership, emphasizing the separation of the highest positions of the party and the government;Strive to improveSoviet systemStrengthening socialist democracy;Rectify and reorganize internal affairs institutions, weaken the privileges of internal affairs departments and cadres, improve the legal system, and redress wrongs and wrongs;We will establish a cadre renewal system and implement a long-term system and a rotation system.These measures contribute to the normalization of domestic political life.The domestic political atmosphere has become active, and the "unfreezing" culture has become increasingly fierce.[78]
Khrushchev paid more attention to agriculture.First of all, we reduced the burden on farmers, abolished the compulsory sale system implemented in the 1940s, and adopted the purchase system of agricultural products, adjusted the purchase system of agricultural departments to increase the purchase price of agricultural products, corrected the phenomenon of violating the principle of material interests, and mobilized the enthusiasm of farmers.[80]Secondly, carry out reclamation campaigns to increase grain production.In February 1954, after listening to Khrushchev's report, the Plenary Session of the CPC Central Committee passed a resolution, deciding to open up wasteland and mature wasteland on a large scale in Kazakhstan and Siberia.Third, reorganize agricultural machinery and tractor stations, allow collective farms to purchase large agricultural machinery, inject the vitality of self-development agriculture into the rigid collective farm system, and make the old agricultural system of the Soviet Union be impacted.Fourth, vigorously promote the corn planting movement and develop animal husbandry.[81]Fifth, reform the labor remuneration system and implementMaterial benefit principleEnsure that farmers have stable income and improve their productivity.[82]Sixth, accelerate the consolidation of farms and turn economically weak farms into state-owned farms.Khrushchev's policy adjustment and reform, to a certain extent, promoted the development of agriculture and changed the situation of the Soviet Union's agricultural backwardness.[80]
In industry, Khrushchev adhered to Stalin's general line of socialist construction of giving priority to the development of heavy industry, criticized the tendency of deviating from this general line and putting the development of light industry in the first place, thus further expanding the serious imbalance between the production of the first category and the production of the second category.In terms of economic restructuring.[78]First, the central government andaligned republicThe vast majority of the ministries of the State Council transferred their management power to the national economic commissions of 105 economic administrative regions to set up various companies under the national economic commissionstrustAnd other economic joint organizations exercise specific leadership over enterprises.Second, most of the enterprises in the central ministries were decentralized to the participating republics and economic administrative regions, and many of the enterprises in the participating republics were decentralized to the economic administrative regions and local soviets.In the resolution and decree, the regional National Economic Commission replaced the professional departments to manage the industry and construction industry, greatly expanding the local power.[83]Third, we should further implement the principle of material incentives, change the wage system according to the changes in the nature of labor and proficiency of staff, improve the staff's concern for labor outcomes from their personal material interests, and implement an economically effective wage system as a stimulus to improve labor productivity.[84]
Nixon and Khrushchev in Moscow in July 1959
Khrushchev's reform has made certain achievements.In agriculture, the total output value in 1958 was 51% higher than that in 1953.In 1959, the grain output reached 136 million tons, 50 million tons more than in 1953, and the per capita income of the dealers increased from 150 dollars in 1953 to 600 dollars in 1958.The agricultural structure has been adjusted, and the degree of agricultural mechanization has been greatly improved.In terms of industry, most of the Soviet Union's industrial output fell behind that of the United States in 1955.The industrial output value was only 35% of that of the United States, and by 1964 it had reached 65% of that of the United States.In some major industrial products, it has approached or surpassed the United States.From 1953 to 1963, the industrial output value increased by 1.7 times.The average annual growth rate is 10.5%, twice that of the United States.Science and technology have made considerable progress and partly caught up with the process of the world scientific and technological revolution.On June 2, 1954, the Soviet Union established the world's first atomic power station;On August 12 of the same year,SakharovThe first designed hydrogen bomb exploded successfully. On August 26, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first intercontinental missile, and on November 4, 1957, the world's first man-made satellite was launched.[79]
After Khrushchev came to power, he decided to cooperate with the United States on major international issues and try to ease the tension between East and West.Visiting the United States in 1959, andEisenhowerThe President is inCamp DavidThe meeting resulted in a general detente between the Soviet Union and Western countries.[85]His goal is to make the Soviet Union equal to the United States as soon as possible by vigorously developing the national economy and military industry, and then surpass the United States, replacing the United States' hegemony in the world.Khrushchev was very worried about the nuclear war between the United States and the Soviet Union, which would destroy the earth.But he also made adventurist mistakes sometimes, such as in 1962“Cuban Missile Crisis”He risked war with the United States.[86]
In 1964, Khrushchev was forced to step down in a bloodless coup,BrezhnevAs the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party and the supreme leader of the Soviet Union, he was relievedShelepin After the threat of others, followkosygin andPodgorneTogether, they established the collective leadership system of "three carriages".The Soviet Union entered the Brezhnev period.
Brezhnev ended Khrushchev's de Stalinization and recovered to some extentStalinHis positive image corrected Khrushchev's excessive criticism of Stalin, but his ideas and policies were too rigid, resulting inovercorrectOn the contrary, the Soviet Union lost its country and societyreformAnd progressive vitality.The second half of the Brezhnev era is called the "stagnation period" and "ossification period" of the Soviet Union.[6]
In 1973, when Brezhnev was in power, the Soviet Union became a net importer of grain for the first time in history.according toCIAIt is estimated that the average annual growth rate of national income in the Soviet Union was 5.1% from 1966 to 1970, 3% from 1971 to 1975, and 2.3% from 1976 to 1980. According to the estimates of Soviet scholars, the average annual growth rate of national income in the above three corresponding periods was 4.1%, 3.2%, and 1.0% respectively.[7]
During the Brezhnev period, the Soviet military expenditure has been growing at a high speed.1965~1979Military expenditureExpenditures have increased more than three times, with an average annual increase of 8%. Since the 1970s, the Soviet Union has become the country with the largest military expenditure in the world since 1972. Its accumulated military expenditure in the 1970s exceeded that of the United States by 20% to 30%.Soviet Unionarms raceHas a serious impact on the long-term development of the economy[8]。[6]
On November 10, 1982, Leonid Brezhnev, the long-time leader of the Soviet Union, died and the former KGB chairmanAndropovHe succeeded as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Partypresidium of the supreme soviet President, Andropov has carried out a bold reform after he took office in the Kremlin, made drastic personnel adjustments, and made contributions to the progress made in developing the national economy and improving people's welfare.Significant achievements have been made in rectifying labor discipline, combating corruption and eliminating corruption, trying to reform the economic system and improving the economic mechanism, and some measures have also received strong support from the Soviet masses.Therefore, Andropov is also considered to be one of the most promising top leaders in the history of the Soviet Union.Andropov died of chronic kidney disease on February 9, 1984, and was in power for only one year and three months.With his death, the Soviet Union's "Andersen reform road" was declared to be over.
Chernenko
After Andropov died, he took overGeneral Secretary of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party、presidium of the supreme soviet The chairman isChernenko。At that time, according to the age, health status and prestige of Chernenko, it was obviously transitional.He has been in power for only 13 months. Although he failed to improve the difficulties faced by the Soviet Union at home and abroad, he maintained the stability of the Soviet political situation and did some specific work.During his administration, he emphasized the inheritance of policies, so he basically maintainedAndropovThe domestic and foreign policies of the period, first of all, in the economic aspect, advocated the serious transformation of the entire economic system of the Soviet Union, proposed to improve economic activities, reform management forms and methods, and turn the national economy into an efficient and orderly mechanism.It is pointed out that the essence of the economic experiment is to give enterprises more rights, improve their sense of responsibility and get rid of the excessive supervision of the central government.
After the death of Chernenko, the Soviet Union enteredGorbachevPeriod.
Deng Xiaoping and Gorbachev
In 1988, Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union would give upBrezhnev Doctrine To reduce interference in the internal affairs of Eastern European countries. His spokesman nicknamed this policy“Sinatra Doctrine”。This policy led to a series of violent "political earthquakes" in the socialist countries of Eastern Europe in 1989（Eastern European upheaval）。
Gorbachev gave up politicallyCommunist Party of the Soviet UnionWe should implement a multi-party system for the leadership of the country, and change the guiding ideology from "scientific socialism" to "humane and democratic socialism".
GorbachevThe reform of the Soviet Union led to ideological confusion within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Soviet society.August 19 IncidentAfter the outbreak, the President of RussiaYeltsinGrasp the situation.Gorbachev worked with him to purge the Soviet Communist Party.On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev announced his resignation as President and Commander in Chief of the Soviet armed forces, and transferred the power to use nuclear weapons to the President of the Russian FederationYeltsin。
along withEastern European upheavalThe governments of the Soviet Union's republics also followed the example of the Eastern European countries, intending to become independent from the Soviet Union.On August 24, 1991, the second largest republic of the Soviet UnionUkraineThe Soviet Union began to disintegrate after the declaration of independence.Later, Russian President Yeltsin declared the CPSU an illegal organization and restricted its activities in Russia.At the end of 1991, he signed a contract with the presidents of Belarus and Ukraine in Minsk, the capital of Belarus, to establishCommonwealth of Independent StatesTo create a similarCommonwealthTo replace the Soviet Union.The other countries in the Soviet Union responded one after another and left the Soviet Union. At this time, the Soviet Union was already dead in name.
The national flag of the Soviet Union was lowered in the Kremlin
On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev announced his resignation and transferred state power to Russian President Yeltsin.On the evening of December 25,Flag of the Soviet UnionSlowly descending from the Kremlin, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was dissolved,International Communist MovementSuffered a major setback.On December 26, the delegates raised their hands symbolically,The Supreme Soviet of the Soviet UnionSelf dissolution marks that the Soviet Union, as aSovereign stateIt formally ends its existence from the law and reality.
The coastline of the Soviet Union is the longest in the world, and more than two-thirds of the coastline of the coastal boundary is in the Arctic Circle.Murmansk, because of the warm ocean current and Gulf Stream, and all other coasts north of the Arctic Circle are frozen for ten months every year.
administrative division
At the plenary session of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party in February 1957,KhrushchevIt is suggested that "the mode of management by industry and department should be changed into a new mode of management by geographical principle".To this end, the National Economic Commission was established.At first, it was planned to divide the country into 20 major economic regions, but under pressure from all sides, the new system of National Economic Commission was divided into several blocks and "included" in the administrative division network: 70 National Economic Commissions were established in the Russian Federation (accounting for 2/3 of the total 105 administrative divisions in the whole Soviet Union), covering 14 autonomous republics, 55 states and border regions;Moscow has a special National Economic Commission.[9]
In 1962, Khrushchev proposed to amend the Constitution, and intended to fix the new structure of national economic management in the form of a new constitution.Article 94 of the draft Constitution stipulates that "the local Soviet Union is composed on the basis of production and geographical principles".Khrushchev insisted on letting the Supreme Soviet and other Soviets play a greater role in economic leadership.The National Economic Commission became the second attempt of the Soviet Union's administrative division.However, the expansion of the power of the National Economic Commission contradicted the stable administrative division of the country at that time.This reform touches the vital interests of cadres in all departments, and encountered great resistance in the implementation process.In November 1962, the number of National Economic Committees of the Russian Federation was reduced to 24 (48 in the whole Soviet Union).[9]
In 1991, almost all republics declared themselves to be federal republics, and four of the five autonomous prefectures (Adig, Karachaev Cherkesk, Khakas, Gorno Altay) also declared themselves to be sovereign republics that are members of the Russian Federation;The Jewish Autonomous Prefecture, Yamal Nenets Autonomous Region, Tamer Autonomous Region, Hantmansysk Autonomous Region and Chukchi Autonomous Region all proposed to change their names to autonomous republics.The instructions of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation on the free economic zone became the first official document to determine the status of border areas and states under the conditions of establishing market relations.Following the coastal border area (the "Nakhotka" free economic zone in October 1990), in 1991Altai Border Region, Sakhalin, Chita, KemerovoKaliningrad, Novgorod, Pskov State and other places have successively established free economic zones.In this way, a strange phenomenon has emerged - the federation in the federation, the autonomous republic in the allied republic, the national autonomous region in the border region or the state.[9]
Changes in the National Emblems of the Federated Republics before and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union
Politics
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State System
《Soviet Constitution》According to the regulations, the Soviet Union is a federal country, with 15 Soviet socialist republics enjoying equal rights（Soviet republics）It is composed according to the principle of voluntary combination.The Soviet Union is a typical Soviet style socialist country.
constitution
The Constitution of the Soviet Union is the fundamental law that confirms and stipulates the basic principles of the Soviet social system and state system.RussiaOctober Socialist RevolutionAfter the victory, four constitutions were promulgated successively in 1918, 1924, 1936 and 1977.The fifth time on July 10, 1918All Russian Soviet CongressThe Constitution of the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic (Basic Law) was adopted, which is the first socialist constitution in the world.
party
Article 6 of the Soviet Constitution stipulates that the Communist Party of the Soviet Union is the only ruling party in the Soviet Union,Communist Party of the Soviet UnionIts 20 million party members are the ruling core of the country, and each factory and collective farm should establish a party branch.The core of the whole system is the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.After the Stalin era, the Soviet Communist Party implemented theCollective leadershipThe principle that whoever can control the majority vote of the Central Committee can control the leadership of the Party and the state.
National symbol
national flag
In 1920,Soviet governmentThe new national flag is composed of red, blue and yellow, with a length to width ratio of 2:1, a vertical blue bar on the left, a five pointed star and crossed hammer and sickle on the red flag on the right, andRussian Soviet Federal Socialist Republicnational flag.In 1922, after the founding of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the national flag was modified to be a red flag with golden pentagram, sickle and hammer on the upper left corner.The hammer symbolizes the working class;The sickle symbolizes the peasantry. The combination of the two is the symbol of the worker peasant alliance and the Communist Party.The five pointed star not only represents the five fingers (workers) of each hand of workers and farmers, but also represents“Workers of all lands unite ”The slogan of.Red is the color of revolution, and yellow is the color of revolutionary light.It is worth noting that there is no pattern on the back of the Soviet flag, which is a simple red flag.
The national emblem of the Soviet Union is an oval shape. In the center of the pattern is painted the earth shining on a round of red sun. The earth has the pattern of sickle and hammer, which has the same meaning as the national flag. The rising red sun symbolizes the bright future of mankind.There is a five pointed star above the earth.The main pattern composed of red sun, earth and five pointed stars is surrounded by ears of wheat, and the streamer wrapped around ears of wheat has 15 words of the joined republic“Proletarians all over the world, unite! "[10]
In January 1918, the Third Soviet Congress decided to《Internationale》As the national anthem, it became the national anthem of the Soviet Union after its founding in 1922.In the late 1930s, the Soviet Union decided to change the national anthem after declaring the victory of socialism.After several debates, Stalin decided in 1944《An unbreakable alliance》Become the national anthem.After Khrushchev came to power, in the movement of criticizing personality worship within the Soviet Communist Party《An unbreakable alliance》The lyrics of the song were abandoned.On May 27, 1977, the Supreme Soviet approved the revised national anthem, removing the elements of Stalin's personal worship.[11]
In the Patriotic War, the Soviet armed forces were collectively referred to as "the Red Army and the Red Navy". After the war, they were renamed "the Soviet land and navy". There was no distinction between independent services.After the war, the army, air force and navy were officially established in 1946.The Soviet Union restored the organizational structure of the headquarters of the territorial air defense forces: the commander of the territorial air defense forces was appointed and led by the artillery commander.In 1948, the National Land Defense Air Force was formally established, which was in parallel with other services. In 1946, an independent airborne command headquarters was established, which governs the airborne and transport aviation arms. The commander of the airborne force was appointed, who is directly under the leadership of the National Defense People's Committee.[20]
military force
In 1949, the Soviet Union exploded the first atomic bomb;In 1946, the first batch of jet fighters MiG 9 and Jacques 1 were produced;In 1947, he began to produce four engine piston bomber Figure 4;In 1953, the hydrogen bomb exploded before the United States.In 1947, the P1 missile was launched;In 1949, the high-power liquid rocket engine was successfully developed;In 1950, P2 missile was tested.In 1963, it was made into a missile nuclear submarine.[20]
By 1979, the total strength of the Soviet army had reached 3.658 million people, with 1398 intercontinental ballistic missiles, 1028 submarine launched ballistic missiles, 156 long-range bombers, 50000 tanks, 55000 armored combat vehicles, 40700 guns, 248 large surface ships, and 8479 combat aircraft.[20]
In March 1969, at the proposal of the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact Organization established a new committee of defense ministers, a joint forces military committee, a technical committee, a foreign ministers committee and other institutions.The Warsaw Pact Organization has successively established two armed forces: the joint armed forces and the "integrated" forces.[20]
Soviet Kilov class nuclear missile cruiser
Military organization
By 1991, the Soviet army was divided into five services:land force、navy、air force、Land Defense Air ForceStrategic Rocket Force.There is also the formation of the border defense force and the internal affairs force.13 military regions, 4 fleets and 1 sub fleet, with a total force of about 3.7 million.[21]
Twice a year from May to June and from November to December
(In remote areas and abroad, in June and September)
Service age of soldiers
Army, Air Force, Defense Air Force, etc. 2 years
Navy 3 years
Higher education recipients 1 year
Maximum service age of officers
Under the age of 40
Major and Lieutenant General 45~55 years old
General and Senior General 60
Maximum service age of reserve officers and soldiers
Soldiers and major aged 50-55
Lieutenant Colonel and Lieutenant General 60~65 years old
General, there is no regulation above
Military education before service
Primary military education in secondary schools starts from the ninth grade
Economics
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overview
Five Year Plan Growth Chart of the Soviet Union
During the Cold War, the Soviet Union was the world's second largest economy for a long time, second only to the United States, and an economic power. It was surpassed by Japan in the late 1980s.But different from the United States, which implements the capitalist free market economy, its economic model is developed according to the highly centralized socialist central planning economic model, and the state monopolizes the means of production.The state controls and adjusts the economy through a five-year plan.After the first five-year plan from 1928 to 1932, the proportion of industrial output value in the national economy rose from 48% to 70%, becoming an advanced industrial country.But the industrial development of the Soviet Union was unbalanced[22]。The military industry, heavy industry, chemical industry and aerospace industry related to national defense are very developed and in a leading position in the world, but the light industry and agriculture related to people's livelihood are relatively backward.This also led to the serious shortage of light industry in Russia and other former republics after the disintegration.
From the economic stagnation in the mid-1970s to the crisis in key economic sectors in the 1980s, the economic structure was unbalanced and the technology was backward.In the early 1980s, the Soviet Union had formed extreme military industrial economic characteristics.Military products account for more than 60% of the machine manufacturing industry, and military expenditures account for 23% of the gross national product;At the end of 1980s, the above indicators were raised to 80% and 28% respectively[23]。The growth rate of agriculture in the Soviet Union dropped from 4.3% in the 1960s to 1.4% in the early 1980s.During this period, the industrial growth rate dropped from 8.4% to 3.5%.The long-term recession of the consumer sector has restricted the improvement of people's living standards and quality of life.
resources
mineral resources
In the Soviet UnionQiuming Oilfield, Kursk coal mine and other mineral resources. The oil, natural gas, coal and uranium mines in the territory have a considerable position in the world. The advantages of precious metal minerals are prominent, and the output of major mineral products occupies an important position in the world.
plant resources
The Northern Forest hasSpruce，Fir，pineandlarchEtc., collectively referred to asconiferous forestThe largest natural area in the Soviet Union is about the same size as that in the United States.Broad band expansion of coniferous forest in mid latitudes, from Finland toUpper Yansk MountainsOn the northeastern and southern coasts of SiberiaLake Baikal。The isolated parts of Daya were found along the mountains, in the south of Ural, and in the Amur River basin in the Far East.
The Soviet Union is one of the major energy producing countries in the world.In 1983, energy output and consumption accounted for 23% and 19% of the world respectively.The energy industry is the basic industrial sector that the Soviet Union focuses on, accounting for 31.3% of the total industrial investment in the country from 1971 to 1984.Energy production has gradually transited from coal dominated in the 1950s to equal emphasis on coal and oil in the 1960s, and oil and natural gas dominated in the 1970s.In 1983, the production structure of primary energy was: oil accounted for 43.4%, natural gas 30.8%, coal 24.2% and others 1.6%.
In 1950, the Soviet Union's oil exploitation reached 54.2 million tons, and in 1985 it reached 851.3 million tons, an increase of about 15 times.In the 1980s, the Soviet Union relied heavily on oil and gas export revenue to maintain its economic operation, and the decline in oil and gas prices severely damaged the Soviet Union's national strength.Energy export income accounted for 54.4% of the foreign exchange income of the Soviet Union at the highest level (1984).With the decline of world oil prices, oil export revenue fell from 38.8% (1985) of the Soviet Union's foreign exchange revenue to 33.5% (1987).The Soviet Union had to increase exports to make up for the decline in foreign exchange income caused by the decline in oil prices.In 1980, the Soviet Union accounted for 19.5% of the world's total output. In 1990, the Soviet Union's output was 570.5 million tons, accounting for 18% of the world's total output.[24]
coal industry
The coal industry is a traditional energy sector.In 1984, the national coal output was 712 million tons, of which hard coal accounted for 78%.Coal mining is mainly concentrated in seven bases:Donbas、Kuzbas、Ekibastuz、Karaganda, Kansk AchinskBochalaandMoscowNearby coalfields (accounting for 77.5% of the national coal output in 1983), of which Dunbas and Kuzbas are the world's largest coalfields, accounting for 27.7% and 20.5% of the national coal output respectively.
textile industry
The textile industry is the main light industry sector, with the output value accounting for more than 60% of the light industry. In 1984, the Soviet Union ranked first in the world in the production of cotton, wool and linen fabrics, and the output of silk fabrics was second to the United States and Japan.The textile industry is mainly distributed in the western consumption areas far away from the cotton producing areas in Central Asia.The Central District is the largest textile industrial base in China, producing 70%, 50%, 45% and 65% of cotton, wool, silk and hemp fabrics respectively.Followed byVolga River Basin, Southwest China, Northwest China and Central Asia.The main textile industrial centers are: Moscow (cotton, wool, silk, linen textiles), Ivanovo (cotton, silk, linen textiles), Kalinin (cotton, silk textiles), Vladimir (cotton, linen textiles), Costrome (linen textiles), etc.
industrial area
The main industrial areas of the Soviet Union are concentrated inMoscow、Leningrad、Donbas、Ural MountainsEtc.Secondary industrial areas include the Baltic coast, western Siberia and the middle and lower reaches of the Volga River (Wowa River).The Soviet Union began to implement economic zoning in 1922.In November 1982, the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union adopted a resolution that there were 19 Soviet economic zones, belonging to three economic zones in the west, east and southwest.
Soviet economic zones
Central Economic Zone
Central Blackbelt Economic Zone
Volga 1-D Yatka Economic Zone
Northern Economic Zone
Northwest Economic Zone
Volga River Economic Zone
North Caucasus Economic Zone
Ural Economic Zone
Western Siberian Economic Zone
East Siberian Economic Zone
Far East Economic Zone
Donets Dnieper Economic Zone
Southwest Economic Zone
Southern Economic Zone
Baltic coastal economic zone
Transcaucasia Economic Zone
Central Asia Economic Zone
Belarusian Economic Zone
Kazakhstan Economic Zone
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Agriculture
The Soviet Union is a big agricultural country, and its agriculture occupies an important position in the world.In 1987, the grain output was 211.4 million tons, accounting for 10.9% of the world's total grain output, ranking third in the world.The wheat output was 83.31 million tons, ranking second in the world.The output value of cotton, sugar beet, sunflower seed and long fiber flax among the main economic crops all ranks first in the world.Among all kinds of livestock, cattle account for 9.4% of the world, slightly less than the United States;Pig accounts for 9.6% of the world, second only to China, and sheep accounts for 9.8% of the world, ranking first.In 1988, its meat output was 19.2 million tons, ranking third in the world;The milk output is 105.95 million tons, ranking first in the world;4.656 million tons of eggs, ranking third in the world.
The Soviet Union has a vast territory and diverse natural conditions, and has various favorable conditions for developing diversified agricultural operations.Its per capita cultivated land is 0.86 hectares, equivalent to 2.4 times of the world's per capita cultivated land;The per capita pasture is 1.41 hectares, 85% more than the world per capita.The main agricultural area is also the area with the most cultivated land. About 2 3 of the cultivated land is concentrated in the forest grassland belt and black soil grassland belt with good water, heat and soil conditions, which are suitable for developing planting and animal husbandry.However, the frequent natural disasters often make the agriculture here suffer huge losses, resulting in unstable agricultural production.Compared with the major capitalist countries, the level of modernization of agriculture and animal husbandry is not high, the per unit yield of agricultural and livestock products is low, and the agricultural production efficiency is only 20-25% of that of the United States.In addition, poor management in agriculture and other reasons have affected the steady development of agriculture.
The Soviet Union became a net grain importer from 1975, and grain imports surged.In 1970, the net export was 3.5 million tons, in 1974, the import and export of grain was flat, and in 1975, the import was more than 10 million tons.In 1984, only 26.8 million tons of grain were imported from the United States and Canada.In 1986-1988, the food shortage was about 21 billion rubles (when the total food production was 136 billion rubles)[25]。In addition to a large number of grain imports, 600000 tons of meat, 240000 tons of cream, 1.2 million tons of vegetable oil, 5.5 million tons of sugar and 500000 tons of citrus were imported in 1989.
At the end of 1976, there were 213000 retail commercial outlets nationwide, and the turnover of retail goods was 139.7 billion rubles, accounting for 69% of the total turnover of goods in the whole Soviet Union;Cooperative commerce is a socialist collectively owned commerce and a major commerce in rural areas. In 1978, there were 540000 members, and retail commercial outlets accounted for about half of the retail commercial outlets nationwide. In 1976, the retail commodity volume was 59.9 billion rubles, accounting for about 29% of the national retail commodity turnover.
State run businesses and cooperative businesses each have their own wholesale and retail channels.The collective farm business played an important role in supplementing the supply of urban non-staple food. In 1980, its sales amounted to 5.7 billion rubles, accounting for 2% of the total retail commodities in the Soviet Union.On average, the proportion of collective farm commerce in the total comparable food sales is more than 8%, while products such as potatoes, fresh vegetables, fruits, berries, vegetables, honey, etc. account for 30-40%.However, in terms of organizing domestic commerce, state-owned commerce always holds the lifeline of commodity circulation and occupies a leading position.
foreign trade
In terms of foreign trade, the import and export license system of commodities is implemented, and the monopoly is completely implemented by the state. The State Planning Commission issues plans to conduct foreign trade in the form of national laws and regulations.In the 1980s, the main import items of the Soviet Union were grain and food.In 1990, these two materials accounted for more than 50% of the total imports.The machinery and equipment imported by the Soviet Union from the West, including complete sets of oil exploration equipment, increased from 29.8% in 1980 to 43.8% in 1990.[24]
population
After the October Revolution, the urbanization of the Soviet Union developed rapidly, the number of cities and urban population were increasing, and the level of urbanization was rising rapidly.By January 1987, the number of cities had reached 2176, with a population of 186 million, accounting for 66% of the total population of the country.[13]
The 1989 census showed that the total population was 286731000.Republics with large population include Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Central Asian republics(Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan)The birth rate is as high as 2.6% every year, while that of Ukraine, Belarus, Russia, Latvia and Estonia is 0.4-0.7%.[14]
List of important time population of the Soviet Union
particular year
population
particular year
population
particular year
population
particular year
population
one thousand nine hundred and seventeen
130 million
one thousand nine hundred and twenty-six
147 million
one thousand nine hundred and thirty-nine
170 million
one thousand nine hundred and forty
194 million
one thousand nine hundred and forty-six
167 million
one thousand nine hundred and seventy-nine
265 million 500 thousand
one thousand nine hundred and eighty-eight
284 million 500 thousand
one thousand nine hundred and ninety-one
286 million 700 thousand
Culture
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Languages
The Soviet Union has about 130 indigenous languages,RussianIt is the official language of the Soviet Union. About 137.5 million people regard Russian as their mother tongue (census data in 1979). About 50 languages are spoken by less than 30000 people. Since the 1930s, many languages in the Soviet Union have been written in Russian (Slavic).[24]
traditional festival
There are mainly eight public holidays in the Soviet Union, and about 30 other holidays and public holidays in total.According to the content of festivals, national festivals can be divided into: agricultural festivals, celebration festivals, sacrificial festivals, memorial festivals and recreation festivals.[65]
National festivals include the New Year, the Soviet Army Day (February 23)Women's Day、May Day Victory Day (May 9)International Children's Day、holiday celebrating the Russian October Revolution(November 7), etc.A grand military parade was held in Moscow's Red Square on October Revolution Day and May Day.The October Revolution Day in 1990 was the last military parade in Soviet history.Professional festivals include Geologist's Day (the first Monday in April), Fisherman's Day (the second Sunday in July), Navy Day (the last Sunday in July), Miner's Day (the last Sunday in August), Teacher's Day (the first Sunday in October), Soviet Police Day (November 10), etc.[65]
date
name
note appended
January 1st
new year
International Festivals
February 23rd
Red Army Day
The establishment of the Soviet Red Army in February 1918
Nazi Germany surrenders and the Patriotic War ends
October 7th
Soviet Constitution Day
The 1977 Constitution was adopted, and December 5 was from 1936 to 1977
November 7th
October Revolution Memorial Day
The October Revolution in 1917
Literature and Art
Literature, art, film and publishing in the Soviet Union are controlled by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and free creation is allowed without criticism of politics and censorship of works.But the so-called "negative" and "decadent" works (equivalent to western worksAvant-garde art）Restricted and prohibited.
In terms of art, Soviet aesthetics has two representative pillars——ConstructivismAndBarbarism。They are independent and integrated with each other, forming Soviet aesthetics.On the occasion of the success of the October Revolution, the avant-garde artists hoped that the new art form could get rid of the arrogance of artists and the poverty of the aristocratic class, so as to deepen people's life and reflect the spirit of the working class and the communist ideal.With the success of the Soviet Union, the artists carried forward this irrational and overhead artistic style, and gradually evolved the original Soviet styleConstructivism。[75]
science and technology
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Science and technology system
In order to take advantage of the reputation of the Russian Academy of Sciences in the world scientific community, in 1925, the Soviet government celebrated the 200th anniversary of the founding of Zhuke Academy of Sciences, and renamed the Russian Academy of Sciences as the "Soviet Academy of Sciences".From 1925 to World War II, the Soviet Academy of Sciences was included in the jurisdiction of the Soviet government (1933);The headquarters was moved from Leningrad to Moscow (1934);The Engineering Science Division (1935) was established to drive basic scientific research with military scientific research and improve the overall level of military scientific research and military production;Recommend members of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and military management personnel to become academicians;We will significantly increase the number of research institutions, researchers and research funds.However, the leaders of the Soviet Communist Party also persecuted and suppressed intellectuals through the establishment of "Salashka" institutions and "mass cleansing".[67]
In 1941, when World War II broke out, the Soviet government established a "mobilization" scientific research management operation mode to deal with the war. Relying on an efficient social organization management network integrating "politics, military, industry, science and technology", it united the whole people and ultimately won the war.In this system, Stalin has absolute command, strictly controls institutions at all levels from top to bottom, and quickly obtains information feedback through the KGB intelligence system.Scientists directly participate in important military scientific research projects in the system, and have established symbiotic relationships with those in power.[67]
After 1945, Stalin and subsequent Soviet leaders maintained and expanded the "mobilization" model, including the research, development and comprehensive utilization of computers and atomic energy, as well as the aerospace field into the priority development strategic areas, creating a national science and technology system with a rigid structure and five integration of "politics, military, industry, science and education", making breakthroughs in science and technology in the short term,To achieve the goal of comprehensively developing basic research and protecting national defense industry and national security.[67]
In April 1961, the State Science and Technology Commission was changed into the National Scientific Research Coordination Committee of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union.Since 1978, it has been renamed the National Science and Technology Commission of the Soviet Union.[18]
Aerospace
The world's first astronaut, Soviet astronaut Gagarin[73]
Soviet space research originated fromZiolkovskyThe idea of using rockets for space flight was put forward from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century.In the 1920s and 1930s, Ziolkovsky's thought was widely spread in the wave of socialist construction, which aroused the great interest of the Soviet public in the aerospace industry.In 1924, the Soviet Union established the world's first space flight research organization - Interstellar Communication Group.From 1930 to 1933, the Soviet Union developed the first batch of liquid rocket engines and the world's first electrothermal rocket engine.In 1933, the Soviet Military Commission approved the establishment of the world's first national rocket technology research institution - the Jet Science Institute.This marks that Soviet rocket research has been incorporated into the national military scientific research system.But with leadersTukhachevskyThe marshal was killed in the "Great Purge", and the Soviet rocket research was almost at a standstill.[67]
Soviet Orbital Sputnik Stamps
After World War II, the Soviet Union recruited a large number of outstanding German engineers and technicians with preferential treatment.After five years of learning and nearly 3 billion rubles of R&D investment, the Soviet Union independently designed and developed an improved version of V-2 rocket for the first time - P-2 rocket, the world's first nuclear bomb carrier P-5M rocket and the first intercontinental ballistic missile P-7.But the main leader of the Soviet aviation fieldKorolevPay more attention to the peaceful development of space.He used P-7 to successfully launch the world's first man-made earth satellite in 1957, which was the first to open the human space age.[67]In 1959, the Soviet space probe Luna II sent back the first picture of the back of the moon.In 1961, Soviet heroesYuri Gagarin Take the Dongfang-1 spaceship into space and become the first person to enter space.In 1986, the Soviet Union launchedMir Space StationBefore the crash in 2001, it was the largest aircraft in mankind.In 1988, the Soviet UnionShuttle BlizzardThe successful launch symbolized the peak of Soviet aviation technology.[68]
The research and development of rocket technology and space flight in the Soviet Union "experienced a process from expert consciousness to top-level government decision-making", which was a process of strategic selection and integrated construction of basic science, applied science, natural resources, human resources and technical equipment by the Soviet Union, demonstrating "politics military industry science education"The five in one national science and technology system has the advantages of systematization, informatization and speediness, which is an important symbol of the Soviet Union's ascendancy to the top of the scientific and technological power.[67]
theoretical research
In 1922, according toEinsteinOfGeneral relativity, Soviet scientistAlexander FriedmanIt is pointed out that the universe is still expanding.In 1934, Soviet scientistsPavel CherenkovIt is found that a particle moving at a speed close to the speed of light emits light when it passes through a liquid or translucent object.This phenomenon was later called“Cerenkov radiation". This principle was then widely appliedHigh-energy physicsIt is used to detect charged particles and measure their velocities.[69]
ApproxHe is a leading scientist in the history of Soviet science and has been at the core of the development of Soviet physics all his life.Yue Fei was the first person in the Soviet Union to engage in semiconductor research. In the 1930s and 1940s, Yue Fei and his colleagues studied the properties of semiconductors, photovoltaic cells, and thermoelectric effects. In the 1950s, he began to study miniaturization, which played a positive role in promoting the development of Soviet physics and Soviet industry.He also advocated the establishment of Leningrad Institute of Physical Technology in 1918.The institute is the cradle of Soviet physics, the center of the development of Soviet physics, and the birthplace of Yoffie School.The main members of the Yoffie School arekapitsa 、Kurchatov、LandauLujinskiSemyonov, Gikoin, Mikyev and many others.Of themSemyonovLandaukapitsa Both won the Nobel Prize.[72]
The achievements of the Yoffe School in theoretical research are very creative, especially in condensed matter physics.The leading figure in this field is Landau, who made outstanding contributions to the development of Soviet physics. Landau won the Nobel Prize for the basic theory of liquid helium in 1962.Other members of Yue Feihe School also made important contributions to this. For example, in the 1920s, Kapitza began to study low temperature when he was in England, and studied new methods of liquefied air from 1936 to 1938;The invention of liquid helium superliquid was announced in 1937, and the temperature qualitative change of helium under the condition of changing from solid to liquid was discovered in 1940, which was called "Kapitza qualitative change". In 1978, he also won the Nobel Prize for his invention and creation in the field of low-temperature physics.[71]Lev Landau He also proposed the famous "Ten Commandments of Landau".[70][72]
After the Second World War, most of the famous nuclear physicists and atomic physicists in the Soviet Union participated in the research related to the development of nuclear weapons led by Kurchatov.Kurchatov was the leader of the Soviet atomic weapons program, and he made significant contributions to the creation of the nuclear technology base.In 1933, he began to study nuclear physics and made important achievements;In 1934, he studied the branch nuclear reaction, which was called "electronic bombing";In 1935, we discovered the phenomenon of isomerism.These works are very important for the study of nuclear reaction and dynamic structure, enrich his nuclear theory, and help him to do a series of research on heavy nuclear fission.In 1942, the Moscow Second Nuclear Weapons Research Office, led by Kurchatov, was established, among which Alexandrov was the backbone.In 1949, the first atomic bomb of the Soviet Union was successfully developed, and members of the Ioffe School participated in its development;In 1953, the Soviet Union exploded the first thermonuclear bomb, and under the leadership of Kurchatov, the cause of peaceful use of atomic energy also developed.[72]
In 1975, due to his contribution to the theory of optimal allocation of resources,CantorovichHe was the first Soviet economist to win the Nobel Prize for Economics together with the American economist Jialin Kupumans.[76]
Because of its vast territory and unbalanced distribution of population, resources, industry and agriculture, transportation was particularly important to the economic development of the Soviet Union.In 1984, the total turnover of goods nationwide was 7682.1 billion ton kilometers, of which 47.4% were railways, 30.8% were pipelines (only including crude oil, oil products and natural gas pipelines), 12.1% were sea transportation, 6.2% were roads, 3.5% were river transportation, and the proportion of air transportation was very small.In 1984, the operating mileage of national railways was 144100 kilometers, second only to the United States, of which the operating mileage of electrified railways was 47900 kilometers.
ocean shipping
Shipping has developed rapidly since the late 1950s.In 1982, the total tonnage of merchant ships above 1 million tons was 23.79 million tons, accounting for 5.6% of the world's total tonnage, ranking fifth in the world.In ocean transportation, ocean transportation accounts for more than 2/3 of its cargo turnover.Among the five merchant fleets of the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea, the North, the Far East and the Caspian Sea, the first four are mainly responsible for ocean transportation.In the early 1980s, there were only 12 large ports with an annual throughput of more than 10 million tons, and most of them were comprehensive ports.The Black Sea Azov Sea is the sea area with the largest cargo and passenger traffic volume in China (accounting for 69% of the national cargo turnover volume and 65% of the passenger traffic volume at the end of the 1970s).The main seaports areBlack SeaCoastalNovorossisk、Odessa、TuapsheIlychovskBatumi；the BalticCoastalVince Pierce、Leningrad、Klepeda；Pacific coastalNahodka、Dongfang Port、Vladivostok（Vladivostok）；Arctic coastalMurmanskEtc.
river transport
There are 63 rivers with a length of more than 1000 kilometers.Since the 1930s, the Soviet Union has renovated some large rivers in Europe, built a series of navigable canals and largeHydro junction, communicatedVolga River、Kama River、Don River、Dnieper River、Moscow River、Neva RiverWait for 6 big rivers to realizeWhite Sea、the Baltic、Caspian Sea、Black SeaandAzov SeaFive seas are open to navigation.Since the 1960s, a deep-water channel with a total length of 6600km and a water depth of 3.65m has been built, connecting the major rivers in the western region into a complete water transport network.In 1984, the navigable mileage of inland rivers in China reached 137000 kilometers.The Volga River system is the busiest inland river transportation, accounting for 55% of the national inland river freight volume and 48% of the passenger volume in the late 1970s.
Railway
The Soviet Union's railway is a very large railway transportation system, and it is also the main mode of transportation in the Soviet Union.The distribution is very uneven. The western region accounts for about 70% of the total railway length of the country, of which the central, southern and western railway networks in Europe are relatively dense.
By 1989, before the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the operating mileage of Soviet railways had reached 147500 kilometers, second only to the United States;Among them, the mileage of electrified railway ranks first in the world, with a total length of 53800 km, accounting for 36.5% of the national railway operating mileage;The total length of double track railway section is 53800 km, which also accounts for 36.5% of the national railway operating mileage;In that year, the volume of cargo transportation exceeded 4 billion tons, and 4.3 billion passengers were transported.Soviet railways accounted for 55% of the country's freight turnover and 37% of its passenger turnover.
Pipeline transportation
Pipeline transportation is one of the fastest growing transportation modes since the 1970s.In 1984, there were 78300 kilometers of trunk pipelines and 165000 kilometers of trunk pipelines in China.The basic flow direction of the pipeline is from east to west, that is, from West Siberia to the western region, and some pipelines go west to some countries in Eastern Europe and Western Europe.In addition, there are a few pipelines from south to north or from north to south, such as the gas transmission pipeline from Central Asia to Central Asia and Ural.
transport aviation
Air transport is mainly responsible for passenger transport.In 1984, China's civil aviation lines were 1.02 million kilometers long, of which domestic routes were 0.838 million kilometers long, accounting for 18.6% of the country's passenger turnover,MoscowIt is the largest airport in China, and other major airports still haveLeningrad、Kiev、Sverdlovsk、Novosibirsk、Tashkent andIrkutskEtc.
By the end of 1991, the Soviet Union had established diplomatic relations with 152 countries and joined more than 500 international organizations.The Soviet Union mainly influenced Eastern Europe and sporadic countries in Asia.
The Soviet Union facilitated the establishment of the socialist camp,socialist campFounded in 1949, it initially included 13 socialist countries, including the Soviet Union, Poland, Democratic Germany, and Czechoslovakia.Yugoslavia was expelled from the socialist camp by the Soviet Union after 1950.In 1960, China's relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated, and China essentially withdrew from the socialist camp.Later, Vietnam, Cuba, Angola, Ethiopia and other countries also joined the socialist camp, up to 17 countries.Correspondingly, economic and military cooperation organizations among socialist countries have also been established.Mutual Economic Assistance CommitteeFounded in 1949, headquartered in Moscow, it has 10 member countries, including the Soviet Union and eastern European socialist countries.On May 14, 1955, the Soviet Union and other eight countries signed the Warsaw Treaty in Warsaw, which was founded on this basisWarsaw Treaty Organization, and long-term military competition and confrontation with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
Socialist countries after World War II
After Brezhnev came to power in 1964, the Soviet Union's foreign strategic thinking once again tended to internationalism, actively engaged in an arms race with the United States, and strictly controlledSatellite StatesAt the same time, it expanded its sphere of influence in the third world. In 1968,Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia。In 1979, the Soviet Union invadedAfghanistan。In 1985, when Gorbachev became the new leader of the Soviet Union, he began to shrink the internationalist foreign strategy and improve relations with the United States[26], carry out comprehensive strategic contraction in the third world countries[27]And improve the relationship with socialist countries.
Prague Spring
And Eastern Europe
The Soviet Union has great influence in Eastern Europe. Most socialist countries in Eastern Europe are more or less manipulated by the Soviet Union[28]。[29]During the Cold War, the boundary between the socialist countries in Eastern Europe manipulated or independent by the Soviet Union and the western capitalist and neutral countries was calledIron CurtainTo the east of the Iron Curtain is the Soviet sphere of influence, forming the Warsaw Treaty Organization against NATO.
Eastern European countries within the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union: Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Poland.Although Yugoslavia and Albania are socialist countries, they are not allies with the Soviet Union.Part of Austria's eastern territory was occupied by the Soviet Union until 1955AustriaDeclared asPermanent neutralityuntil.
And Asia
The Soviet Union has great influence in Asia. There are countries in Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia and the Middle East that have very close relations with the Soviet Union, especially in East Asia and Southeast Asia.The Soviet Union actively developed relations with South Asian countries at the beginning of the Cold War.[30]
Asian countries within the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union: Mongolia, Afghanistan (to 1979), Vietnam, India, Laos, South Yemen.
In 1950, China and the Soviet Union signed the Sino Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance, which was abolished in 1980.
Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship
With Africa
The Soviet Union has sporadic allies in Africa, mainly in South Africa and East Africa.African countries within the Soviet sphere of influence or allied with the Soviet Union: Angola, Mozambique, Guinea Bissau, Ethiopia.
The Soviet Union also has allies in Central America, mainly Cuba[31]Etc.Most of these countries broke away from the Soviet Union in the middle and later stages of the Soviet Union, the end of the communist regime, the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War.
On August 21, 1937, the Soviet Union and China signed《Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact 》Began to expand military assistance to China and support China's War of Resistance against Japan in various forms[32]。From 1937 to 1939, the Soviet Union and China signed three agreements totaling 250 million US dollarsLoan Agreement[33]。At the same time, send military advisers to participate in battle command[34], set up a volunteer aviation team to fight in China[35]。On September 27, 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed an alliance treaty, which worsened the relations between the Soviet Union, Germany and Japan.In order to ease the tension between the Soviet Union and Japan, the Soviet UnionEastern Front On the eve of the outbreak, the Soviet Union and Japan signed an agreement in Moscow on April 13, 1941《Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact 》[36-37]。
From February 4 to 11, 1945, the heads of the Soviet Union, the United States and Britain and their foreign ministers signed a secret agreement on the Japanese issue, also known as“Yalta Agreement”[38]。In April 1945, the Soviet Union announced the abolition of the Soviet Japanese Neutrality Treaty. On August 8, it declared war against Japan.On August 9, the Soviet army crossed the Sino Soviet and Sino Mongolian borders toJapanese Kwantung ArmyLaunch a surprise attack.[39]On August 14,Republic of ChinaThe representative was forced to sign with the Soviet Union《Sino Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance》。
Mao Zedong was with Stalin when he visited the Soviet Union in 1949
On October 2, 1949, the day after the founding of the People's Republic of China, the Soviet Union announced the recognition of New China.The next day, China and the Soviet Union officially established diplomatic relations.[40]The Soviet Union was the first country to recognize and establish diplomatic relations with New China.In 1950, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China signed《Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship 》。
Korean WarDuring this period, the Soviet Union provided military assistance to ChinaThe first five-year plan、The Second Five Year PlanDuring the period, the focus of Soviet aid to China was the construction of "156" basic industrial facilities.
In the 1960s, Sino Soviet relations deteriorated sharply, and aid was also greatly reduced until it was terminated.In 1962, China and India had a military conflict（Sino Indian War）The Soviet side supports India.In 1969, large-scale military conflicts broke out on the border between China and the Soviet Union, includingTreasure Island Campaign。In August of the same year, the Soviet army was on the western border of China and the Soviet UnionTieliektiThe retaliatory strike against China led to another armed conflict between the two sides.This series of events is called“Sino-Soviet border conflict ”。The two countries were once on the verge of nuclear war.
In 1985, Gorbachev came to power and began to implement a more relaxed foreign policy, which received positive responses from the Chinese side.In May 1989, Gorbachev's visit to China further restored bilateral relations.
The main social security system of the Soviet Union includes retirement pension system[15]Subsidy system, medical care system and social service system.
The social security system of the Soviet Union was the first social security system under socialist conditions in the world. In 1918, the Regulations on Social Security for Workers approved by the People's Committee of the Russian Socialist Federation was implemented. In 1927, the labor heroes were given high standard retirement security deposits.In 1928, the first national decree on pension treatment in the Soviet Union decided to first implement the pension system for textile workers: men from the age of 60 and women from the age of 55.In 1936, the Constitution of the Soviet Union established in the form of legislation the material security enjoyed in old age, illness and incapacity.On October 1, 1956, the Soviet Union implemented the State Guarantee Law.Since 1964, the Soviet Union has implemented the national social insurance and the national security deposit for the main cadres of the farms.Since 1969, social insurance has been implemented for farm workers.On July 15, 1970, the Soviet Union promulgated the Principles of Labor Legislation.The Constitution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, adopted on October 7, 1977, established a unified social security system for Soviet citizens.
The education popularization rate in the Soviet Union was very high, and the ten-year system was implemented throughout the countrycompulsory educationAnd basically eliminated illiteracy.According to statistics, in 1983, the Soviet Union spent 33.9 billion rubles on education, accounting for 6.3% of the national income. In 1984, the Soviet Union had 138000 pre-school education institutions and 7624 vocational and technical schools.[17][19]
In 1930, the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China put forward the task of popularizing primary compulsory education, which was fully realized in 1934.Since 1925Colleges and universitiesStart setting upGraduate DepartmentIn 1934, the degree and academic title system was formally established.According to the 874 open enrollment colleges and universities listed in the 1984 All Soviet University Enrollment Manual, 398 of them are under the management of the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Professional Education of the Soviet Union and the allied republics, and the rest are under the management of relevant ministries and social organizations.The Ministry of Higher and Secondary Specialized Education of the Soviet Union directly manages 32 colleges and universities, including 3 comprehensive universities, 4 economic colleges, 1 law school, 1 foreign language teachers' college, and the remaining 22 engineering and technical colleges.The famous universities in the Soviet Union areMoscow University、People's Friendship University of Russia、Leningrad University、Kharkov University 、Kiev UniversitySchool of International Relations, etc.[16]
Sports
The Soviet Union held theThe 22nd Olympic Games, its achievements in the large-scale international comprehensive games:
In April 1922, he was elected General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China (Bolshevik) at the first meeting of the newly elected Central Committee at the 11th Party Congress[41]。In 1941, he concurrently served as the chairman of the Soviet People's Committee (renamed as the chairman of the Council of Ministers since 1946)[41]。nation:Georgian
Remark: In 1990, the People's Congress of the Soviet Union adopted theSoviet Constitution(Basic Law) Revised the Supplementary Law, and decided to establish the President of the Soviet Union, with Gorbachev as the first President of the Soviet Union.
