Value in use is value, and value in economics is value in use.The essence of products is use value.Only the realized value has the use value, and only the value in use is the realized value.[1]
Interpretation 1
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Overcapacity, unable to sell, noRealize value, no use value;Tens of millions of setsVacant house, sold, but not used, no use value;Fake and inferior products、jerry-built projectsAlthough it has been sold, it is still in use and has no use value.Accumulated by the production of products with no use valuegross domestic productIt is also bubble GDP.The quality of value in use is to meet people's needs, while the quantity is a measure of value in use.Generally, the so-called abstract value refers to human beings who are calculated according to time indiscriminatelyAbstract labour, is only a standard to measure the amount of value in use, not the value itself.[1]
Interpretation 2
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Value in use is one of the common attributes of all commodities.If any article wants to become a commodity, it must have the value that can be used by human beings;On the contrary, goods with no use value will not become commodities.The use value is commoditynatural quality。Marxist political economyIt is believed that the value in use is determined bySpecific laborIt is creative and has a qualitative incompatibility.For example, people can't say that rubber andBananaWhich is more valuable.Use value is the material basis of value, and together with value, it constitutesCommodity duality。
The utility of goods that can meet people's needs.If food can satisfy hunger, clothes can keep out the cold.One of the basic attributes of a commodity.yesExchange valueThe material undertaker ofpublic wealthThe material content of.Air, grassland and other natural objects, and not for exchangeLabor products, has no value, but has use value.
The use value of commodities refers to the attribute that can meet people's needs.Use value is one of the common attributes of all commodities.If any article wants to become a commodity, it must have the value that can be used by human beings;On the contrary, goods with no use value will not become commodities.The use value is materialnatural quality。
Marxist political economy believes that the value of use is determined bySpecific laborIt is creative and has a qualitative incompatibility.For example, we can't say which is more valuable, rubber or banana.Use value is the material basis of exchange value, and together with value, it constitutes the duality of commodities.
Use value and exchange value
The use value refers to the property that the goods can meet some needs of people.stayClassical Political EconomicsBefore its appearance, people generally noticed the use value of things in exchange, and linked it with the degree to meet people's needs, and put forward the "utility" of exchange.This is obviously leaving the marketSocial attributeAfter, onProduction activitiesIt is a conclusion drawn from the simple inspection of the value of use.Later, this view was inherited by the vulgar economic theory, and further put forward the "law of diminishing utility", that is, to link the "utility" of things with the degree to meet people's needs, so that they form aFunctional relationWhen people's needs are met to a certain extent, the "utility" of things relative to people will gradually decrease to zero. If it continues to increase, it will be“Negative utility”。Here, we will not comment on the scientificity of the "law of diminishing utility" for the time being. From this point of view, it shows that people have a common understanding of the concept of use value in long-term production and exchange practice, that is, anything that cannot meet people's certain needs, whether it is naturePossessionstillLabor products, have no use value.In fact, use value has two basic attributes in the market. One is relative to human beingsnatural qualityThis attribute reflects the relationship between man and nature.That is, natural possession orLabor productsIt exists as the material of nature and can meet certain needs of people. Its use value is determined by the materialnatural qualityTo be specified.suchnatural qualityIt will be continuously developed with the continuous progress of science and technology, while some will be on the contrary.This shows that the use value of objects is continuously developed and utilized with the continuous progress of human material production activities.If the more usefulness included in the object, the wider the scope of human use, and thus the greater the use value of the object.The second is the use value of the subjective needs of the exchange.It is difficult to exchange goods that are not the subjective needs of the interchanger, even if they have use value.In fact, in market exchange, the use value should not be needed by the occupier first, that is, in the process of transfer, the use value is regarded asNon use valueIt exists, but for the other party of the exchange, it is the use value.This is from the marketSocialTo examine the value of use, thus reflecting the social attributes of value of use.The value of use is examined from the relationship between man and nature, reflecting thenatural quality, thisnatural qualityIt exists under any historical conditions.The use value used for exchange reflects the use value of the subjective needs of the exchanger, which contains the hiddenSocial attributeIt is determined by certain economic and social conditions.In short, the former forms exchangenecessary conditionAnd the latter forms an exchangesufficient condition 。
Since production, exchange and consumption are the basic contents of human's material production activities, the use value of things is first noticed. As Marx once speculated, "using goods may become the first step of exchange value, that is, it exists as non use value, as a direct need beyond its ownersValue in useBut being, things themselves exist outside of people, so they can be transferred. "Even the most primitive exchange, if the possession does not have the above two attributes, then the exchange will not occur, so the value cannot be investigated.
From the exchange of pure use value to the exchange of value, it has gone through three stages: the exchange of sundries, the exchange of specific use value and the exchange of value. This is a historyEvolution process。We know that different kinds of use values are created by different kinds of specific labor. However, in the early stage of exchange, the exchange is first composed of mixed materials with different kinds of use values, and it is exchanged as a kind of use value. As long as these mixed materials are different, they can meet some different psychological needs,Then the exchange can be completed.This exchange method was completely developed by theproductivityDevelopment levelAnd certain social conditions.On the one hand, it shows that people still lacked the understanding of the value of use at that time. On the other hand, it shows that because the barter was produced jointly by the workers in the community and was the common crystallization of their labor, it can be exchanged as a kind of barter as a surplus.This is determined by social conditions, which reflects the common nature of labor within the community.Although this kind of common labor is still limited within each community and does not have the common nature of the entire human labor, it is unified internally and is the direct product of their common labor.The common nature of human labor can be abstracted through the exchange of different use values, that is, the exchange of specific laborLabor formThe historical necessity of development.Only through the exchange of different use values can the common nature of human labor be abstracted, that isAbstract labour。Therefore, the change from the exchange of purely used goods to the exchange of abstract labor must take the exchange of specific use value as the historical premise.It can also be seen from here that the unity of labor develops into the opposition of labor, and then develops into the unity of human labor through the exchange of opposite labor, thus transforming into a new oneassociated labor, not exactlythe negation of negationIs the Law Reproduced in Market Exchange?Exchange not only promotes the development of social productivity, completes the qualitative leap of labor form, makes it develop into new joint labor, but also lays the foundation for changing the face of the whole society.
Difference between price and value
From the perspective of philosophy, any commodity has two attributes: value and use value, which are expressed through price.Value is the undifferentiated human labor condensed in commodities.I think it can also be understood that in a certain period of time, the average price of an hour for all people in the society is 10 yuan per hour. For example, one person can produce one in one hourShoe brushThe "value" of this shoe brush is 10 yuan.
What is "use value"?It is the attribute of satisfying a certain demand of people.It can also be understood that the brush above can help people brush away the dust on the objects. This is the "use value" of the brush.
What's the "price" of this brush?Only 50 cents at most.Because sometimes the shoe brushes on the market sell for 50 cents.That is to say, the price of goods is determined by value.It is not determined by your personal 10 yuan value.
However, from a micro perspective, the three factors influence each other and are mutually causal!If the brush has been sold for 5 cents, the person will lose 9.5 yuan, he will not produce again, and will transfer to other industries to produce to reflect his value.If none of them produce this kind of shoe brush, except one, do you think the price of this kind of shoe brush will rise?Definitely, I will.This causes the price to fluctuate around the value!
If the brush he made in one hour is broken, that is to say, although its value is 10 yuan, it has no use value, and its price is 0
So whencommodity priceHigher than its value?Suppose you spend 10 million yuan ontian'anmen squareA villa will be built in the center. At what price do you think it will be sold?I think it will cost 10 million yuan, and some people will rush to buy it!becauseIf youHanging billboards around villas can earn more than 10 million yuan a year,.This means that the price of a commodity will also be affected by its use value.
When is the price of goods lower than the value?
If you wereMount QomolangmaThe peak also spent 10 million yuan to build a villa. If you want to sell it to someone for living, how much will it cost/at most 0 yuan? If you want him to live, he will not give you money and will ask you for travel and living expenses!Is the price lower than the value?
Dialectical Analysis of Use Value
The use value reflects the positive effect of things on human survival and development.All kinds of things in the world are loved and valued by people with various use values, which constitute peopleRich and colorfulThe content of material life and spiritual life, and all people's activities are inseparable from the use value of these things.Generally, the same thing contains multiple use values;The same use value can be shown by many things;The same thing can show different use values for different users;The same thing for the same user at different times or in differentenvironment conditionIt can also show different use values;And so on, which has formed the complex and complicated changes of the use value, which makes many people trying to study and explore the mystery of it flinch.Use value is the most basic form of value,Labor valueIt is another kind based on the use valueValue form, so we shouldValue theoryTo push forward to the field of natural science, we must first solve the problem of unified measurement of use value, for which we must conduct a dialectical analysis of use value itself.
1、 Argument about the possibility of unified measurement of use value
For a long time, people have been confused by the complex forms of expression of use value, and can not see their deep unity or coherence.Many people believe that there is nothing in common between different forms of use value, so it is impossible to measure them uniformly.Some even claimed that they used the "logical argument method" in theoryComplete negationThe possibility of unified measurement is given.
The main reasons why people deny the possibility of unified measurement of use value are as follows:
1. The uncertainty of the characteristics of the subject of use value.It means that things will show different use values for different physiological, psychological and spiritual quality users, and things will show different use values for different physiological, psychological and spiritual changes of the same user.The subject characteristics of use value determine that the use value of anything will change with the quality and state of users, showing greater ambiguity andUncertainty。
2. The complexity and diversity of the characteristics of the object of use value.It means that things with different quality characteristics will show different use values for users.The quality characteristics of things are complex and diverse, which can be described and measured by physical, chemical or mathematical methods respectively. For example, the geometric size of an object can be measured by "meter", the mass can be measured by "kilogram", and the chemical energy can be measured by "joule".
3. Value in useMediatorVariability of characteristics.It means that things will show different use values for different environmental conditions, and will also show different use values for the same environmental conditions in different time and space areas.The transformability of the intermediary characteristics of use value makes the use value of things show greater uncertainty.
4. The difference between subjective use value and objective use valueSynchronicity。It means that the subjective use value always deviates more or less from the objective use value.The subjective use value is the subjective reflection of the objective use value. Its size is affected by individual physiological, psychological and spiritual factors, and will inevitably change with the change of human desires, feelings, emotions and other factors, with greater subjective randomness.
In fact, the above four characteristics of value in use can only explain the complexity of value in use, but can not explain that value in use cannot be measured uniformly.
2、 Objective criteria for use value judgment
The standard for evaluating the value of things is called valueJudgment criteria。If the subject's consciousness, desire, feelings, emotions and other factors are taken as the criteria for evaluating the value of things, it is called the subjective value judgment criteria, which is objectiveValue standardSubjective reflection.However, is the subjective value judgment standard restricted by certain objective premise and foundation?Is there a unified, scientific and objective standard system behind the subjective value standards, that is, the "standard standard"?This problem is not only the value theory but also one of the most puzzling problems in the whole philosophy.
In some cases, the value theory has three main wrong tendencies:
① Completely negates the existence of value judgment standards;
② It only recognizes the subjective value judgment standard and completely denies the existence of the objective value judgment standard;
③ Although the objective value judgment standard is recognized, it is impossible to find the hidden "standard standard", or to understand and master it completely and accurately.
The idea of completely negating the value judgment standard is a kind of valuenihilismIt regards the value phenomenon as a kind of virtual thing, which has no real meaning, and it can not see the existence of value judgment standards.numberWestern philosophersIt is believed that people's evaluation and value judgment standards are not beyond the will and concept of the subject, and there is no objective basis.They even pointed out that everythingevaluation criterionThe premise of is a subjective assumption of "what should be", and its ultimate premise can only be such a assumption. It is almost "unimaginable" (Russell) to solve the problem by pointing out its objective basis, thus fundamentally denying the existence of objective value judgment criteria.Some scholars believe that the subjective value judgment standard and the objective value judgment standard can and should be distinguished.The criterion of subjective value judgment is actually just "should" and "want" in the subject's mind and consciousness;The objective value judgment standard is the subject's actual existence, structure, and the objective needs and capabilities of its survival and development, that is, the subject's true "needs" and "should", which determine the consciousness andPractical testThe way of thinking determines and restricts the criteria of subjective value judgment.However, what is the real objective value judgment standard,theoretical realmThere are many controversies: some people believe that "the needs of the subject and the external reality are the objective basis of the value judgment standard", others believe that "the interests of the subject are the objective basis of the value judgment standard", and so on.Facts have proved that the above "objective standard" is not the most basic, so what is the most basic objective standard, namely "standard standard"?
According to the "law of maximum essential force" in my book "The Theory of Unified Value", we can know that the fundamental purpose of human subject is to develop its own essential force to the maximum extent. The key to measuring the value of anything for human subject is to see the degree of influence this thing has on maintaining and developing the essential force of human subject.It can be concluded that:
value judgment The objective standard for judging the value of anything to the subject is the essential force of the subject, and for individuals, it is individualsLabor capacity(That is, judging the value of things for individuals depends on whether they are conducive to maintaining and developing individual labor capacity.) For the collective, it is collective productivity, and for the society, it is social productivity.
3、 Unified measurement of value in use
The use value can be divided intoMeans of subsistenceValue in use andMeans of productionThere are two categories of use value. Each category targets different human subjects and serves different objective purposes, so it has different evaluation criteria.Among them, the means of subsistence is to serve individualsConsumption processIts use value is based on individual labor ability;The means of production serve the collectiveProduction processIts use value is based on collective productivity as the objective evaluation standard.
1. A unified measure of the use value of means of subsistence.Since the individuals who own the means of production are called "single person collective" and belong to the category of collective, "pure individuals" are only combined with the means of life. The use value of the means of life is only for individuals and only serves the individual consumption process to maintain and develop individual labor capacity.According to《Unified axiology》The use value of means of living is first transformed into human'sLabor potential, and thenLabor processThe transformation into labor value constitutes an individual's labor capacity. The extent of its impact on the individual's labor capacity mainly depends on the quantity of labor potential, that is, the use value of means of living depends on the labor potential it transforms in the process of human consumption.Human labor potential can be divided into four basic levels or basic types: food and clothing, health and safety, self-esteem and human respect, self-development and self realization.Among them, the labor potential of food and clothing can beBiochemical energyThe latter type of labor potential can be converted into a certain amount of the former type of labor potential, so all types of labor potential can be converted into a certain amount of food and clothing labor potential, so the use value of all types of means of livelihood can be converted into a certain amount of standard food energy.It can be concluded that:
Measurement rule of the use value of means of livelihood: the use value of means of livelihood depends on the standard food energy equivalent to the impact of its consumption on individual labor capacity.
The measuring principle of the value in use of the means of production: the value in use of the means of production depends on the amount of the value in use of the means of life that it eventually transfers by way of depreciation in the production process.
4、 Benchmark of value in use measurement
Since the use value of the means of production can be converted into a certain amount of the use value of the means of life, and the use value of the means of life can be converted into a certain amount of food energy, so food energy can become a unified scale of the use value.To improve theAccuracyandobjectivityWe must enhance the stability, reliability andcertainty, we must carry out a series of strict regulations on it to determine a benchmark measure of value in use.
In the section of "negative entropy and value", "standard" is proposedOrdering energy”A standardized food is used as the benchmark of ordered energy.becauseGeneralized ordering energy(i.e. value) is based on ordered energy, and use value is the basic form of value, so standardized food can be used as the benchmark of value or use value measurement.
1. Benchmark scale of use value measurement (food energy):Farming methodRice (or flour) specified by conditions such as storage and transportation methods, etc. is defined as the benchmark for measuring the use value.
To improve the convenience, flexibility andApplicabilityIt is also necessary to supplement this benchmark.
2. The second benchmark scale of value in use (precious metals): because some precious metals (such as gold, silver, etc.) have relatively stable physical and chemical characteristics, good separability, easy storage and transportation, and high density of value in use, they can be used as a substitute for the benchmark scale of value in use, that is, the "second benchmark scale",To make up for the lack of benchmark scale.
3. The Third Benchmark of Value in Use Measurement (Currency): Circulation of SymbolsAndThe calculation is much more convenient and flexible than the circulation and calculation of physical objects. Therefore, a legal currency symbol of the use value benchmark can be selected as the third benchmark to represent the use value benchmark or the second benchmark, such asRMBYuanJapanese yen、dollarEtc.
5、 Component of use value
Functional value: The degree of influence of all positive factors inside things on the essential force of the subject is called functional value, which is expressed by Qf.
Dissipative value: the influence of all negative factors inside things on the essence of the subject is called dissipative value, which is expressed in Qh.
Use value: the difference between the functional value and the dissipative value of a thing is called the use value of the thing, which is expressed by Qu, that is
Qu=Qf－Qh
The use value reflects the absoluteness of things to the essential force of the subjectAmount of influenceIt has deducted its own negative effects.Since the dissipative value can be regarded as the functional value of negative value, the value in use can be regarded as the algebraic sum of all positive and negative functional values.
After decomposing the use value, people can easily understand why some things play a very important role in human survival and development, but their use value is zero.For example, water, air, sunlight and other natural things are necessary for human survival and development, but human needs to dissipate another part of the functional value in the process of absorbing and using it. When the dissipative value of things equals to the functional value, its use value becomes zero.According to "value in usemarginal utility The functional value of a thing decreases with the increase of the consumption speed of the subject. When the consumption speed increases to a certain extent, its functional value tends to be dissipative value, and the use value of the thing tends to zero.This leads to the conclusion that "value in useZero value theorem”。
Zero value theorem of use value: when the supply speed or consumption speed of a thing is large enough (that is, it is not scarce), the use value of the thing tends to zero.
According to this theorem, some rarenatural resourcesBecause of its great supply and consumption speed, its use value must be zero.The reason why other rare natural objects have use value is that human development and social progress have constantly excavated their functional value.For example, if people do not learn how to use fire, coal will not have functional value;If people do not learn how to smelt metal, iron ore will never have functional value.With the continuous development of science and technology, more and more natural objects have improved their functional value, and their use value has broken through the zero limit, thus inducing human beings to increase their development speedProduction speedAnd consumption speed.However, with the continuous growth of human production scale and consumption speed of these natural objects, their marginal functional values fall back again, and tend to their dissipative values, so that their use values return to zero.Of course, there are also some natural things whose use value has been exhausted before returning to zero.
For a long timepolitical economicsDiscipline systemIt is true that there are not many studies on the theory of use value, and the academic community has not paid enough attention to this issue. But it is undeniable that, with the development and progress of social and economic life, more and more things enter people's production and life, playing an increasingly important role, which requires that people's understanding and understanding of the theory of use value should be more scientific and in-depth.Fortunately, some scholars began to pay attention to the research in this field, trying toEconomic TheoryOn the basis of, further develop and improve the theory of use value, promote the research of relevant theories, so that it can better guide practice.The research results in this area have been emerging, playing an active role in both theory and practice.It is against this background that the publication of this book should be meaningful.
