Aristotle was born in 384 BCThraceStakira.This city isGreeceOne ofcolony, and the emergingMacedoniaAdjacent.His father was the King of MacedoniaPhilip IIAccording to his family, he belongs toSlave owner classInmiddle class。At the age of 17, he went toAthensstayPlato Academy I studied for 20 years untilPlatoHe left only after his death.Perhaps influenced by his father, Aristotle was interested in biology and empirical science;Under the influence of Plato, he became interested in philosophical reasoning.
He moved to Athens in 367 BC and studied medicine. He also studied at the Plato Institute in Athens for many years.In 366 BC, Aristotle was sent to the Plato Institute in Athens to study. Aristotle lived in the Institute for the next 20 years until his teacher Plato died.[1]
Thrace, the birthplace of Aristotle
From the age of 18 to 38 - during the twenty years of studying philosophy with Plato in Athens, his study and life during this period had a decisive impact on his life.SocratesHe was Plato's teacher, and Aristotle was taught by Plato.In the Platonic Garden in Athens, Aristotle performed very well, and Plato called him "the spirit of the Garden".But Aristotle is not a person who only worships authority and is docile in academic without his own ideas.He was different from the teacher who talked about metaphysics. He worked hard to collect all kinds of books and materials, studied hard, and even built a library for himself.
In 347 BC, Plato died, and Aristotle stayed in Athens for another two years.Because the new head of the school park agreesPlatonic philosophyAristotle could not bear the tendency of mathematics in, so he left Athens.Since then, he began to travel around.
After leaving the school, Aristotle first accepted the invitation of his former classmate Hermias to visitAsia Minor。Hermias was on the coast of Asia MinorMiziyaRulers.Aristotle also married Hermias' niece there.But in 344 BC, Hermias was murdered in a riot, and Aristotle had to leave Asia Minor to go with his familyMitellini。
In 343 BC, Aristotle was called back to his hometown by Philip II, the king of Macedonia, and was accepted by the kingPhilip IIEmployed byAlexander the GreatOur teacher.At that time, Aristotle was forty-two years old.According to the famous biographer in ancient GreecePlutarchAristotle indoctrinated the future world leader with moral, political and philosophical education.At the same time, Aristotle also used his influence and played an important role in the formation of Alexander the Great's thought.It was under the influence of Aristotle that Alexander the Great always cared about science and respected knowledge.
When Philip II died in 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school there.The name of the school park (Lyceum)Temple of Apollo The nearby wolf killer (Lucius).During this period, Aristotle wrote many philosophical works while giving lectures.Aristotle had a habit of walking in the corridor and garden while lecturing. Because of this, the philosophy of the school garden was called "carefree philosophy" or "wandering philosophy".Aristotle also wrote a lot of works during this period, mainly about natural science and philosophy in natural science and physics, and the language used was also more than that of Plato《Dialogues》A lot of obscurity.Many of his works are based on lecture notes, some of which are even his students' classroom notes.Therefore, some people regard Aristotle as the first textbook author in the West.
Athens College/Aristotle
After Alexander's death, the Athenians began to rise up against the rule of Macedonia.Because of his relationship with Alexander, Aristotle had to flee to Calsis for refuge because he was accused of disrespect.His school park was handed over toTheophrastuIn charge.[2]
In this turbulent era, Aristotle returned to Athens and stayed there for 20 years, from the year before Alexander set out on the expedition to the year when Alexander died.
When Aristotle came to Athens, he might have the political mission of persuading Athenians to obey Macedonia.Aristotle received a lot of preferential treatment in Athens. In addition to his prominent position in politics, he also received a lot of money, materials and land subsidies from Alexander and Macedonian bureaucrats at all levels.He foundedLvkeang School Park, occupying a vast sports ground and garden area near the Temple of Apolloluceon.He founded his own school here. The teachers and students of this school are used to discussing problems while walking in the garden, so it is called "Xiaoyao School".When the news of Alexander's death reached Athens, there was an upsurge of anti Macedonia. The Athenians attacked Aristotle and sentenced him to the crime of impiety. In those years, Socrates was sentenced to death for the crime of impiety.But Aristotle finally escaped from Athens.
In 322 BC, Aristotle died of a serious illness at the age of 63.The cause of death may be a disease accumulated for many years.At the same time, he was poisoned or could not be explainedTidal phenomenonThe speculation of suicide by jumping into the sea.[1][3]
3. Natural philosophy: Physics, Meteorology《On Heaven》On Birth and Death.
4. On animals: Zoology, Structure of Animals, Movement of Animals, Progress of Animals, Reproduction of Animals, Nicomark Ethics, 158 City State System.
5. On people: On Soul, On Feeling and Being Sensed, On Memory, On Sleep, On Dream, On Prophecy in Sleep, On Length of Life, On Youth, Old Age and Death, On Breath, On Breath.
6. Ethics and Politics:《Nicomachean Ethics 》, Eudemos Ethics, Politics, Athens Political System, Great Ethics, European Ethics, On Virtue and Evil, Economics.
7. Aesthetic works: Rhetoric, Poetics, Alexander Rhetoric.[4]
Aristotle, thoughPlatoBut abandoned what his teacher heldidealismViews.Plato believes that the idea is the prototype of the object, which does not depend on the object but exists independently.Aristotle believes that the world is composed of various things whose forms and materials are in harmony."Material" is the material composed of things, and "form" is the individual feature of each thing.It is like a chicken with wings flapping. The "form" of this chicken is that it can flail, coo and lay eggs.When the chicken dies, the "form" no longer exists, and the only thing left is the chicken material.
Plato asserted that feeling could not be the source of true knowledge, while Aristotle believed that knowledge originated from feeling.These ideas have included someMaterialismFactors.Aristotle, like Plato, believed that rational scheme and purpose were the guiding principles of all natural processes.However, Aristotle's view on causality is richer than Plato's, because he accepted some views on this issue in ancient Greece.
He pointed out that there are four main reasons. The first isMaterial factorThat is, the main substance that forms objects.The second isFormal causeThat is, the design patterns and shapes given to the main substances.The third isDynamic causeThat is, the mechanism and function provided to realize such design.The fourth isPurpose causeThat is, the purpose of designing objects.
Aristotle himself was interested in the formal cause and objective cause of objects, and he believed that the formal cause contained in everythingNatural objectsAnd function.At first, these forms are hidden, but once objects or creatures have developed, these forms will show up.Finally, when an object or organism reaches the completion stage, its finished products will be used to realize the purpose of the original design, that is, to serve the purpose factor.He also believes that in concrete things, there is no form without material, and there is no formless material. The combination process of material and form is the movement of transforming potential into reality.This theory is spontaneousDialecticsThe idea of.
Aristotle's greatest contribution to philosophy is the creation of formal logic, an important branch of science.Logical thinking is the pillar of Aristotle's excellence in many fields. This way of thinking runs through his research, statistics and thinking from beginning to end.He isresearch methodHe is used to criticizing the theories of the past and the same era, proposing and discussing the blind spots in theory, using deductive reasoningsyllogismFormal argument.[3][6-7]
Astronomy
Aristotle believed thatcelestial bodiesIt is a material entity. The earth is sphericaluniverseThe center of;The earth and celestial bodies are composed of different materials. The materials on the earth are composed of four elements: water, gas, fire and earth. Celestial bodies are composed of the fifth element“ether”Composition.
Aristotle's works dealt with mechanics.He already has the concept of force parallelogram in the case of orthogonality.He explained the lever theory that the force farther from the fulcrum is easier to move the weight because it draws a larger circle.He divided the movement of the weight at the end of the lever into tangential (he called it "natural") and normal ("unnatural") movements.Aristotle onFalling motionHe even said that the speed of objects falling is precisely proportional to their weight.This wrong view has a great impact on later generations.Later, the French N. Olsim and others gave correct opinions, but did not verify them.At the end of the 16th century, SStevenandGalileoIt not only explains theoretically, but also proves Aristotle's error by experiment.
Aristotle also believed that "everything that moves must have a driver pushing it", but one by one cannot be traced back indefinitely, so "there must be a first driver", that is, there is supernatural power.Here, motion refers to motion in the general sense, including mechanical motion.
Aristotle's discussion on falling body movement can be found in《On Heaven》(De Caelo), who applied his law of falling body many times in another book, Physics (with a Chinese translation, published by the Commercial Press in 1982).This is a book about natural philosophy, which mainly discusses sports.[8]
Aristotle believed that the earth world consists of earth, water, gas and fire,Four elementsform.Each element represents a combination of two of the four basic characteristics (dry, wet, cold, and hot).Soil=dry+cold;Water=wet+cold;Air=wet+heat;Fire=dry+hot.
Aristotle believed that white is a pure light, while the colors we usually see are light that changes for some reason, which is impure. Until the 17th century, people firmly believed in this conclusion. In order to verify this view,NewtonPut aprismPut it under the sun, and the sun passes through the prism to form a band of light consisting of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and purple to shine on the light screen. Newton reached a conclusion that is completely opposite to what people had previously believed to be correct: white light is composed of these seven colors of light, and these seven lights are pure.[3]
Biology
In animal science, some of his opinions were believed to be accurate only in the 19th century.He classified more than 500 different plant animals, and anatomized more than 50 animals, pointing out thatwhaleIt is viviparous, and the development process of chick embryos was also investigated.
He was the first person to classify biology and wrote special works for it (such as animal classification, animal reproduction, etc.). He first discovered the enlightenment of comparative law and was rightly called the founder of comparative law.He also recounts many kinds of animalslife historyThe first person of.He wrote his first book on reproductive biology and life history.He paid particular attention to the phenomenon of biodiversity and the significance of the differences between animals and plants.
Head of Aristotle (in the Louvre)
Although he did not propose a formal classification (method), he classified animals according to certain standards, and heinvertebrateThe classification ofLinnaiThe classification of is more reasonable.In physiology, he mostly adopts traditional views and is not outstanding.Compared with his predecessors, he is firmEmpiricist。His reasoning is always rooted in his past observations.In the article "Animal Reproduction" (De generatione animalium 760b28), he clearly stated thatsensory organsThe information (knowledge) obtained is the first, which exceeds the information that rational thinking can provide.In this respect, he andScholastic philosophyThe Aristotelian school in his family is completely different. The latter believes that all problems can be inferred by inference alone.
Aristotle's distinctive feature is to investigate the reasons. He was not satisfied with merely asking the question of "how", but also the question of "why", which was great at that time.Why does an organism develop from a fertilized egg to a complete adult?Why?BiosphereSo many goal oriented activities and behaviors?He clearly understood that only the raw materials that constitute the body do not have the ability to develop into a complex organism.There must be something extra, which he called eidos.Completely different from Plato's definition, Aristotle's eidos is the principle of procedural purposiveness. In his thought, the meaning of this word is exactly the same as that expressed by the genetic program of modern biologists.
In contrast to Plato, Aristotle believed that natural things act according to their own nature, and that all natural phenomena are action processes or manifestations of processes.Since any process has a purpose, he believes that the study of purpose is an important part of the study of nature.Therefore, for Aristotle, all structures and biological activities have biological significance, or as we say, adaptive significance.One of Aristotle's main purposes is to explain these meanings.Aristotle's "why" question has an important enlightenment in the history of biology."Why?" is the most important question raised by evolutionary biologists in their research.
Aristotle firmly believes that the world is basically perfect, thus ruling out the view of evolution. His advanced ideas have only been fully affirmed in recent decades.There are several reasons why he has become notorious over the past few centuries.One reason is thatThomasismThey regarded him as their authoritative philosopher. Later, when the reputation of scholasticism was ruined, Aristotle was implicated.Another more important reason is that in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuriesscientific revolutionDuring this period, almost all the emphasis was on physical science.[2]
logic
His academic field also includes early research on formal logic theory, which was eventually incorporated into modern formal logic theory in the 19th century.Aristotle believed that analytics orlogicIt is the tool of all sciences.As the founder of formal logic, he tried toThinking formConnect with existence, and clarify the category of logic according to objective reality.Aristotle applied his findings toscientific theoryCome up.As an example, he chose mathematics, especially geometry, because geometry had already changed fromThalesThe early experimental stage, which wanted to give a reasonable explanation to the empirical rules of land survey, transited to the later stage with a relatively complete deductive form.
Cover of Chinese Metaphysics
However, the syllogism of logic is really useless for experimental science.Because the goal of experimental science is discovery, rather than formal proof from recognized premise.Starting from the premise that elements can no longer be divided into simpler objects, it was possible to propose a correct list of known elements in 1890, but by 1920, using this premise again will bring everythingradioactive elementbe excluded.Since the premise has changed, the meaning of the word "element" has also changed.However, this fact does not prove that syllogism is useless, nor can it be determinedModern PhysicsIs wrong.
In metaphysics, Aristotle's philosophy and theologyIslamismandJudaismIn the Middle Ages, it continued to influence Christian theology, especially the academic tradition of the Catholic Church.[6-7]
Under the authority of Aristotle, the scientific circles in Greece and the Middle Ages used the deductive method to say that many wrong authorities were absolutely correct, and made many wrong inferences with deceptive logical forms.[9]
education
Aristotle believed that rational development was the ultimate goal of education and advocated that the state shouldSlave ownerPublic education for children.So that their body, virtue and wisdom can be developed in harmony.In terms of teaching methods, Aristotle attached importance to the role of practice and practice.For example, in music teaching, he often arranges children to perform on the stage, experience on the spot, become skilled and improve their level.In terms of teacher-student relationship, Aristotle did not follow his teacher's advice, but dared to think, adhere to the truth and challenge on the basis of inheritance.His character of "I love my teacher, especially the truth" encouraged him toPlatoEstablisheddidacticsTo a higher level.
Aristotle's teaching thought is based on hisTheory of human nature, epistemology and its investigation of children's physical and mental development.He divided human soul into two parts: one is irrational soul, whose function is instinct, feeling, desire, etc.; the other is rational soul, whose function is thinking, understanding, understanding, etc.He believes that in the process of human cognition, the main function of the soul is feeling and thinking.The soul perceives the external things with the help of the sense organs, which are not transferred by human will, thus recognizing the position and role of feeling in the process of cognition.However, he also believes that feeling only plays a role of induction here, and truth and knowledge can only be obtained through rational thinking.Therefore, Aristotle's teaching purpose is to develop the rationality of the higher part of the soul.
HisethicsAlthough it had a profound impact from beginning to end, it was reborn with the arrival of new modern virtue ethics.[6-7]
Aristotle set up his philosophy school“encyclopedia”Style courses.He advocates that students should develop in an all-round way in morality, intelligence, physique and beauty, with different emphasis in different periods.In early childhood, physical development (sports) is the main;In adolescence, music education is the core and morality, wisdom and beauty are the main contents;Senior students should learn grammarrhetoric, poetry, literaturePhilosophyEthicspolitical scienceAnd arithmetic, geometryAstronomy, music, etc.However, the focus should be on developing students' intelligence.He especially emphasized the role of music in cultivating children's general cultivation.It is believed that music has three functions: entertainment, temperament cultivation and rational cultivation. It can relieve fatigue, refine the mind, shape the character, stimulate the soul, and then enter the rational and noble through meditationMoral realm。In physical education teaching, he disagreed that teachers should only allow students to carry out harsh and even painful training, and should teach "simple gymnastics" and "light martial arts", focusing on the normal development of children's bodies.[10]
Politics
withPlatoSimilarly, he believes thatcity-statehigher thancitizenHowever, he also advocated that people have their own rights and demanded that the interests of city-state and citizens be balanced.He also established the balanced justice principle of fair justice and exchange justice.On the one hand, people of different origins, property, status and abilities should be treated equally; on the other hand, special preferential treatment can be given to special tasks.He admired it very muchdemocracy andmonarchyWe should practice democracy in legislation and monarchy in administration.He hoped to safeguard the interests of citizens while safeguarding the overall interests of the city-state, and proposedDecentralization theory。[6-7]
《political science》It is the most important political work of Aristotle, an ancient Greek thinker.[11]
other
He was also a master of typology, and divided the city-state into six categories according to the number of rulers and whether to safeguard the interests of all citizens.It also demonstrates that the evolution of the whole is gradually deteriorating, and the reason is that the comprehensive principle of justice has been destroyed.[5]
Aristotle isRealismThe ancestor of.Different from his teacherPlatoMeasuring the reality with his assumed ideal country, he advocated starting from the real country to prevent the country from degenerating and promote the development of the country.He was righthuman natureandreasonBe skeptical and advocaterule by law, andlawThe source of "is not human rationality or scholar's thinking, but something that people follow and recognize in history and tradition, that is, historical rationality.".He took a very cautious attitude towards reform and reform, and should not reform unless it was absolutely necessary.[5]
social influence
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As an encyclopedic scientist, Aristotle made great contributions to the world.He is also a true philosopherPhilosophyAlmost every discipline of has made contributions.
The picture of Aristotle's class depicted by Arabs
In terms of philosophy, Aristotle's thought has a profound impact on the fundamental tendency and even the content of western culture.His works were translated intoLatin, Syriacarabic、Italian、Hebrew, German and English.Later Greek scholars studied and praised his works,ByzantiumThe same is true of scholars.His thoughts are the medieval Christian thoughts andIslamThe pillar of scholastic philosophy.The most important thinker in the Islamic worldAveroi, combining traditional Islamic theories with Aristotle'sRationalismIt is integrated into its own ideological system.The most influential Jewish thinkerMaimonide, explained Jewish doctrine with rationalism, and made great achievements in reconciling science, philosophy and religion.
Aristotle showed a turning point in Greek science.Before him, scientists and philosophers all tried to put forward a complete world system to explain natural phenomena.He was the last person to propose a complete world system.After him, many scientists gave up the attempt to propose a complete system and turned to specific problems.
With the discovery of Aristotle's works,the medieval timesA study has emergedAristotelismIn this new era, scholars take this as the basis for obtaining true knowledge in all aspects.[1]
On the basis of the late Greek philosophical literature, the Commentary 1 of "Category Chapter" has translated and annotated Aristotle's "Category Chapter", which is the first time that the Chinese academic circle has made a detailed commentary on Aristotle's classic works in full compliance with the norms of western classical science on the basis of strict first-hand literature.
The Series of World Academic Masterpieces Translated into Chinese, published by the Commercial Press in September 2009, is a series of books translating academic masterpieces from all over the world. 1 The author is Aristotle, etc.This book mainly includes many translations of academic classics.
Nicomachean Ethics is an ethical work created by Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher. It was written about 330 BC.The whole book, Nicomacho Ethics, has 10 volumes and 132 chapters. It discusses various aspects of the development of moral behavior and various provisions of moral relations.The book systematically expounds the view that virtue lies in rational activities, and the supreme good is happiness. It believes that all things have a purpose - to seek good, and that everything has a suitable nature
Nicomahai Ethics is a book published by Huazhong Science and Technology Press in 2007 by Aristotle (ancient Greece).one
poetics
Author nameAristotle
Work time2003-1-1
The image of poetry, the exception of poetry, the inspiration of poetry: we can be sure that we fully know the meaning of the adjective "poetique".Just because we have enough knowledge of this word, we can expand its scope of use at will, not just regard it as a language product, that is, poetry.
Aristotle's Complete Works (Volume V) is a book published by Renmin University Press of China on January 1, 1997. The author is Aristotle and the translator is Miao Litian.
Metaphysics is a philosophical work created by Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, in the 4th century BC.Metaphysics has 14 volumes in total and is collected into one volume.The book discusses the object of philosophy and the scope of research;Some philosophical terms are explained;It analyzes and criticizes the previous philosophers' thoughts, focusing on Plato's theory of ideas;The author's theories of substance, material and form are expounded.Metaphysics elucidates a theory, which is sometimes called wisdom
Life is full of opportunities and changes.When one is most proud, the greatest misfortune comes.
The ultimate value of life lies in the ability to awaken and think, not just in survival.
In misfortune, useful friends are more necessary;In luck, noble friends are more necessary.In misfortune, it is necessary to find friends;In luck, it is noble to find friends.
Birds with the same feather gather together.
A true friend is one soul conceived in two bodies.
Career is the vivid unity of idea and practice.
The root of education is bitter, but its fruit is sweet.
There are many kinds of fallacies, but there is only one kind of correctness, which is why failure is easy to succeed and miss is easy to hit.
Those who progress in science but lag behind morally do not advance, but retreat.
Anyone who is good at thinking must be able to pursue what is most beneficial to human beings through action according to his thinking.
Nothing that God does is better than pure thinking, and the closest thing to this happiness in human behavior may be the closest activity to thinking.
Man is the best animal among all animals when he reaches the perfection of virtue;But if he goes his own way.Without law and justice, he becomes the worst animal among all animals.
It is not enough for us to only recognize virtue. We must also strive to cultivate it, use it, or adopt various methods to make us become good people.
Habit has actually become a part of nature.In fact, habits are somewhat like nature, because there is little difference between "always" and "always". Nature belongs to the category of "always", while habits belong to the category of "always".
Virtue can be divided into two kinds: one is the virtue of wisdom, and the other is the virtue of behavior. The former is derived from learning, and the latter is derived from practice.
Real virtue cannot be without practical wisdom, and practical wisdom cannot be without virtue.
Human beings are naturally social animals.
Compassion is caused by a person suffering from misfortune, and fear is caused by the person suffering from misfortune similar to us.
Politics does not create human beings, but it separates them from nature and controls them.
Someone asked: Is it a genius to write a good poem?Or art?My view is that hard work without rich talent, talent without training, are useless;Both should be used and combined with each other.
I love my teacher, and I love truth more.
Only war can bring peace.
Law is order, and good law is good order
It is duty to be humble to superiors, kindness to peers, nobility to subordinates, and safety to everyone.
Happiness comes from ourselves.
Wisdom not only exists in knowledge, but also in the ability to use knowledge.[12]
His thoughts have had a profound impact on mankind.He foundedformal logicLearning enriches and develops various branches of philosophy, makes great contributions to science, and is the first person to demonstrate that the earth is spherical.[5]
Some of Aristotle's ideas seem extreme.For example, he agreedSlaveryAnd the unequal treatment of women, that this is the arrangement of nature, of course, these ideas are the portrayal of his times.However, many of Aristotle's thoughts still have timeliness today, such as: "Poverty is the mother of revolution and sin", "legislators should focus on educating young people; ignoring education will inevitably endanger the national foundation." Aristotle's thoughts on education are obviously ahead of time, and there was no public education in his life.
