1911Revolution of 1911After the outbreak, the revolutionary partyNanjingestablishProvisional Government of the Republic of China, recommended by provincial representativesSun Yat-senHe is the interim president.In January 1912, the Republic of China was officially established in Nanjing[1]。Then the Provisional Government moved to Beijing tohigh Qing officialLeadedBeiyang WarlordEstablishment of political power[3]。1921Communist Party of ChinaIt was founded to promote Sun Yat sen to reorganize the Kuomintang in 1924 and implement three major policies of joining Russia, joining the Communist Party and supporting farmers and workersNorthern Expedition War, overthrowBeiyang WarlordRule.1927Chiang Kai sheklaunchApril 12 Counter revolutionary CoupLater, it was established in NanjingNational Government。NationwideCounter-Japanese WarDuring this period, the National GovernmentChongqingIt is the alternate capital.In May 1946, the National Government returned its capital from Chongqing to Nanjing[21]Then Chiang Kai shek launched a full-scale civil war[22]。In 1949, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China, the Chinese people overthrewthe Nanjing National Government, establishing the People's Republic of China[11]。
Following New Year's Day in 1901Sun Yat-sentowardsTokyoIn 1906, after the academia and the international community declared the "Republic of China" as the national title after the successful revolutionAllianceIt was confirmed by consensus at the meeting.
1911Revolution of 1911It was successful and soon announced the establishment of the "Republic of China".
On New Year's Day in 1912, Sun Yat sen took officeInterim President of the Republic of China, officially announcing the use of the country name of the "Republic of China".
New Year's Day, 1912, Republic of ChinaNanjing Provisional GovernmentSun Yat sen became the interim president of the Republic of China.Sun Yat sen made it clear that:
Republic of China
"The Republic of China is the country of the people. It is established for the people and governed by the people."
It shows that the government of the Republic of China was established solely to administer the country on behalf of the people of all ethnic groupsnational sovereigntyIt should belong to all citizens.
Sun Yat sen made a comprehensive exposition in 1916:
Republic of China
"Why not say the Republic of China, but the Republic of China? The meaning of this word is derived from the results of more than ten years of research. The European and American republics were founded long before our country. The citizens of the 20th century should have the spirit of creation. It is inappropriate to call the energy efficiency law enacted in the 18th and 19th centuries and introduce it as self-sufficient.... The citizens are the sons of the Republic."
The essence of "Republic" and "Republic" is the same.Sun Yat sen's idea of a republic is not exactly the same as that of Europe and the United States. He believes that we should learn from the West creatively to avoid the drawbacks of Europe and the United States. In the name of the country, the word "people" directly represents civil rights, which is more positive and distinct than the meaning of "republic".[2]
history
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The rise of democratic revolution
The establishment of the Republic of China is different from that of the previous Chinese monarchiesbourgeois classA republic founded by democratic revolutionary struggle.
At the end of the 19th century, due to the corruption of the Qing DynastycapitalismThe deepening of aggression by foreign powers, especiallySino-Japanese Jiawu WarThe failure of the Communist Party of China has plunged China into a serious national crisis.Advanced Chinese people have been searching for ways to save the nation from extinction.
With the development of capitalist economy in China and the spread of western political thoughts and theories, the political forces representing the emerging bourgeoisie began to mount the political stage in China.
withSun Yat-senLed by a group of people with lofty ideals, they first chose the road of revolutionary salvation.
In 1894, Sun Yat senHonoluluformXingzhong AssociationHe proposed to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and establish a united government.From the very beginning, the activities of Xingzhong Society were different from the traditional model of dynastic replacement, and had the characteristics of a new era.But Sun Yat sen's pioneering work could not be understood by the masses at that time. There were only more than 100 people following his ambition.
Since 1898Kang Youwei、Liang QichaoLed by the bourgeois reformistsReform reformThe failure ofBoxer Movementas well asEight-Nation AllianceThe invasion of the Qing Dynasty greatly stimulated all levels of Chinese society, and more and more people began to realize that to save China, the Qing government must be overthrown.As a result, the anti Qing revolution advocated by Sun Yat sen rapidly developed into a widespreadsocial movement 。
In the early 20th century, a group of small revolutionary groups openly or secretly opposed to the Qing Dynasty appeared in China.Organized by Huang Xing in HunanHuaxinghuiJiangsu and Zhejiang haveCai YuanpeiPresidentialResumption, HubeiScience cram school, SichuanGongqiang Association, AnhuiYuewang Association, GuangdongQunzhi SocietyEtc.These small groups, including Xingzhong Society, are mostly influenced by traditional secret associations in terms of organizational form, and lack contact with each other.Their anti Qing uprisings or struggles have failed one after another, and their leaders have fled abroad.
The setbacks of the revolution did not frustrate the leaders, but gave them the opportunity to reflect, reorganize and unite.
Because Sun Yat sen andHuang XingThe revolutionary party exiled to Japan was founded in Tokyo on August 20, 1905Alliance。Its members include revolutionaries from more than ten provinces.This is the first national political party in Chinese history.Sun Yat sen was electedprime ministerHuang Xing is responsible for the implementation department.Imitating the Alliance established by the western bourgeois parties, the small groups' uneven political level was raised to a new height with a radical democratic program.This program was put forward by Sun Yat sen“Expel the Tartars, restore China, establish the Republic of China,Average land ownership”；Later, it was further elucidated asnation、civil rights、People's livelihoodFor contentThree People's Principles。
The League also announced that in the future of the Republic of China: "All citizens are equal to haveParticipation in political power。PresidentIt is jointly carried out by the people.The parliament is composed of members elected by the national people, and formulatedConstitution of the Republic of ChinaEveryone should stick to it together, and those who dare to act as emperors will be attacked by the whole world. "The blueprint of this republic has great appeal to the Chinese people who have been oppressed by the feudal monarchy for a long time.
After the establishment of the Alliance, issue《People's Daily》And other books, magazines and newspapersCixiThe Qing government headed by the empress dowager committed crimes of harming the country and the peopleKang Youwei、Liang QichaoPromoted by othersconstitutional monarchyAdvocate encouraging the people to join the revolutionary ranks.After the debate with Kang and Liang, the anti Qing revolutionary thought is increasingly popular.At the same time, the Alliance will continue to organize in some southern provincesanti-Qing secret societiesandWestern-style army at the end of Qing dynastyuprising.The armed uprising to overthrow the Qing Dynasty was the basic strategy of the League to promote the revolutionary movement.
From 1906Pingliuli UprisingTo April 1911Huanghuagang UprisingThe revolutionaries continued to launch more than ten armed uprisings.Although these uprisings hit the Qing Dynasty again and again, it showed thatBourgeois revolutionariesIt was a force that could not be ignored, but because the uprising had a simple tendency to take military risks away from the masses, it did not fundamentally threaten the rule of the Qing government.However, the continuous failure of the uprising caused some revolutionaries to have negative emotions, which became an important reason for the laxity of the upper echelons of the League.
wuchang uprising
In the first ten years of the 20th century, Chinese society was in violent turbulence, and the spontaneous resistance of urban and rural people was like waves, rising from wave to wave.Northern provincesCivil commotionOverlap.The provinces in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River have suffered from famine year after year. Hungry people have flocked into cities, and rice riots have occurred from time to time.
In order to resist the revolution and ease the discontent of the people, the Qing government held various new policies: training the new army, building schools, and establishing provincesAdvisory Bureau, ImplementationPreliminary constitutionalism, etc.
At the end of 1908Emperor GuangxuAfter the death of Empress Dowager CixiPu YiSuccessionZaifengSupervise the country.The Qing government was in the midst of ups and downs, and the internal strife was increasingly fierce.Zaifeng Exiles the Leader of the Beiyang New Armyhigh Qing official, OrganizationRoyal Cabinet, trying to take over the military and political powerManchuIn the hands of your groupConstitutionalismGentry, officials andBeiyang ArmyGeneral discontent.
In May 1911, the Qing government ordered the implementation of "state-owned railway".The so-called state-owned means seizing the power of private railways and reselling them to the great powers, while refusing to return the shares collected by the merchants and the people.This predatory measure aroused widespread public anger.Under the instigation of the constitutional gentry and revolutionaries who had a close relationship with railway rights and interests, a nationwide trend of road protection was quickly formed toSichuan Wuhan RailwayPassing through Sichuan is the most intense (see SichuanRoad protection campaign）。
When the Qing government transferred a new army from Hubei to Sichuan to suppress the people, the revolutionaries in the new army of Wuchang revolted on October 10, 1911, and captured them at one fell swoopgovernorYamen, and quickly recoveredHankouandHanyang。
The military government declared that China was the Republic of China and its sovereignty belonged to the people;Call on all provinces to respond to the revolution and overthrow the Qing government.
Wuchang UprisingIt shocked the whole country.The revolutionaries in all provinces have launched a new army, an association or a chamber of commerce uprising.The local constitutionalist gentry and businessmen who originally opposed the revolution mostly sailed with the wind and turned to the republic, turning the provincial advisory bureaus under their control into organs advocating independence.
Qing government'sFrontier sealed officialsSome abandoned their posts and fled, while others were forced to support independence.
More than a month after the Wuchang Uprising, Hunan, Shaanxi, Jiangxi, Shanxi, Yunnan, Shanghai, Jiangsu, Guizhou, Anhui, Zhejiang, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Sichuan and other provinces and regions successively declared independence, and the rule of the Qing Dynasty was in a state of collapse.
On December 2, the revolutionary army captured Nanjing, and the revolutionary forces in the upper and lower reaches of the Yangtze River joined forces. All southern provinces were recovered.Both Hubei and Shanghai military governments proposed to organize temporarycentral government。
On November 30, the provincial representatives' meeting was held inHankou British ConcessionIt was decided that before the establishment of the provisional government, the military government of Hubei would exercise the functions and powers of the central government, and passed《Memorandum of Association of the Provisional Government of the Republic of China》。The representative meeting also decided that the provisional government would be located in Nanjing, where the election of the president would be held.After repeated consultations, the leaders of the revolutionary party mostly advocated that Sun Yat sen, who had just returned from overseas, should be elected as the temporary president.
On New Year's Day in 1912, Sun Yat sen was sworn in as the Republic of ChinaSolar calendar, 1912 was the first year of the Republic of Chinanational flag of the early RepublicIs the national flag.
The Beginning of the Republic of China
On October 10, 1911, the revolutionaries launched successfullyWuchang UprisingAnd in the following two months, it led the revolutionary response in all parts of China.
On December 29, 17 of the original 22 provinces of the Qing Dynasty, which had become independent, sent representatives to elect Sun Yat sen, who had just returned to China, asInterim President of the Republic of China。
On January 1, 1912, Sun Yat sen was sworn in,AsiaThe first democratic republic, the Republic of China, was officially established.
So far, the Republic of China has officially replaced and inheritedQing Empire。
On February 13, 1912, Sun Yat sen was forced to submit his resignation to the Provisional Senate.[18]The Provisional Senate elected Yuan Shikai as the Provisional President, and the capital was moved to Beijing;
From then on to 1928, it was called the "Beiyang Period", and the government of the Republic of China in that period was also called the "Beiyang Government".
The National Flag of the Republic of China, Five Color Flag (1912-1928)
After the temporary government officially moved to Beijing, Yuan Shikai led theBeiyang WarlordThe regime was established.Yuan Shikai's Internal Suppressionthe kuomintang, sold outnational sovereignty, Sun Yat sen called for the use of force against Yuan“Second Revolution”It happened.Due to the weakness of the Kuomintang and the strength of the Beiyang Army, the "second revolution" soon failed.Yuan Shikai Suppresses“Second Revolution”After, we startedRestorationImperial activities.Sun Yat sen once again organized armed forces against Yuan,National protection movementYuan Shikai was forced to cancel the monarchy and died in despair.[3]
With the further development of China's capitalist economy, the bourgeoisie strongly demands the implementation of bourgeoisdemocracy, against feudalismwarlordThe rule of,New Culture MovementCame into being at the historic moment.In 1915,May Fourth leaderEstablished in Shanghai《New youth》And became the symbol of the rise of the New Culture Movement."Democracy" and "science" are the slogans put forward by the New Culture Movement.The New Culture Movement set off a trend of ideological emancipation in society.After the victory of the October Socialist Revolution in Russia,Li DazhaopropagandaOctober Revolution, first time in ChinasocialistSo that the New Culture Movement has a new development.[12]
1923“February 7th Massacre”, makeCommunist Party of ChinaRecognize that relying solely onworking classOur strength is not enough. Only by uniting all the forces that can be united can weChinese RevolutionLead to victory.For this reason, the Communist Party of China decided to cooperate with the Kuomintang led by Sun Yat sen to establish a revolutionunited front。In January 1924, the Chinese Kuomintang held its first national congress in Guangzhou.The First National Congress of the KuomintangThe convocation of the CPC marked the realization of the cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party and the formal establishment of the revolutionary united front.With the help of the Communist Party of China and the Soviet Union, the Kuomintang establishedMilitary AcademyAnd laid the foundation for the establishment of the National Revolutionary Army.[12]
After the First National Congress of the Kuomintang, the national revolutionary movement against imperialism and feudalism began rapidly,Guangdong Revolutionary GovernmentIt also set up a workshop to train the backbone of the peasant movement;Two Eastern ExpeditionsChen JiongmingLater, Guangdong revolutionary base area was consolidated and unified;The First East ExpeditionAfter,National GovernmentIt was established in Guangzhou, and its armed forces were organized intothe National Revolutionary Army。[12]
In order to overthrow imperialism, overthrow warlord rule and unify China, the National Government began the Northern Expedition in 1926.The Northern Expedition Army successfully marched into the Yangtze River valley within half a year.The Northern Expedition was strongly supported by the workers and peasants movement;The victory of the Northern Expedition promoted the movement of workers and peasants.From October 1926 to March 1927, Shanghai workers launched three armed uprisings and won.[12]
Nanjing National Government
After Sun Yat sen died in March 1925, the Kuomintang Rightists stepped up their struggle for revolutionary leadership.In April 1927, Chiang Kai shek launched the "412" counter revolutionary coup in Shanghai;On July 15, 1927, Wang Jingwei launched the "July 1st Five Year Plan" counter revolutionary coup in Wuhan, and the first Kuomintang Communist cooperation broke down.During this period, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, represented by Chen Duxiu, made Right capitulationist mistakes.The national revolution failed.[12]
National Flag of the Republic of China (1928-1949)
"April 12" counter revolutionary coupLater, Chiang Kai shek established the National Government in Nanjing.[12]On April 18, 1927, Nanjing was designated as the capital.[13]In 1928, the National Government held the "Northern Expedition", occupied Beijing, and the Fengxi warlordZhang ZuolinHe retreated outside the Shanhaiguan Pass and was killed by the Japanese Guandong Army in Huanggutun.end of the year,placed under house arrestAnnouncing“Change the Banner in Northeast China”And obey the National Government.The National Government formally unified the whole country.[12]After the Nationalist Government occupied Beijing, it changed Beijing into Beiping and set up Beiping as a special city.National GovernmentUsed“The sky is bright and the ground is red”The national flag replaced the five color national flag of the Beiyang government (laterChange the Banner in Northeast China）, and made in the state government《Regulations in the period of political training》Medium.The "Constitution" is equivalent to the Constitution.Qing Yunge was also stopped, and Sun Yat sen'sHuangpu Military AcademyThe national anthem of the training speech written at the opening ceremony is "Three People's Principles, which our party believes in; to build the Republic of China, to enter the Great Harmony; to consult Erduoshi, who is the vanguard of the people; to work hard all day and night, the principle is to follow. To be diligent and brave, we must believe and be loyal; to be single-minded and implement all the time".
On September 18, 1931, Japan launchedSeptember 18th IncidentAnd began to invade China locally from the northeast.
On July 7, 1937, it was manufactured by the First Garrison Department of the Japanese Army and the Chinese Garrison Army“Lugouqiao Incident”The Chinese army fought back and the national war of resistance against Japan broke out.On August 13, the Japanese army made the "Hongqiao Airport Incident" in Shanghai, deliberately expanding the scale of the war of aggression against China, and the National Government was forced to fight against JapanBattle of SonghuBurst.In late September, the KuomintangCentral News AgencyThe Communist Party of China announced the Declaration on Cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China,Counter-Japanese National United FrontFormally formed, the whole nation of China began the war of resistance.
In the early days of the War of Resistance against Japan, the National Government organized many large-scale campaigns on the front battlefield to fight against Japanese invaders, but it followed a one-sided war line and lost a large area of land;The Communist Party of China implements the line of all-around resistance and the policy of lasting resistance. The Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army go deep into the enemy's rear, establish anti Japanese base areas, open up the battlefield behind the enemy, carry out guerrilla warfare extensively, cooperate with the front battlefield, fight against Japanese aggression, win the victory of the war of resistance for the Chinese people, and win the final victory of the anti fascist war for the people of the world,Has made great contributions.[12]
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attackedPearl HarborChina, the United States and Britain officially declared war on Japan, Germany and Italy, and the Pacific War officially broke out.December 31, 1941, President of the United StatesFranklin Delano RooseveltAfter obtaining the consent of the British and Dutch governments, he formally proposed to Chiang Kai shek the establishment of a Chinese theater of war and the establishment of a headquarters, so that the United Nations troops in China, Thailand, Vietnam, and Myanmar in the Chinese theater of war could be under unified command, and the liaison between the three headquarters of the commander of the Chinese theater of war, the commander of the Indian army, and the commander of the South Pacific theater of war could be coordinated.On January 4, 1942, the United Nations officially elected Chiang Kai shek as commander in chief of China's war zone.On January 5, 1942, Chiang Kai shek announced in Chongqing that he would become the supreme commander of China's war zone, from which China's war zone was officially established.[14]U.S.AStilwellThe general is the chief of staff of China's war zone.[15]China's Anti Japanese War has become an important part of the world's anti fascist war, and the Chinese battlefield has become the main eastern battlefield of the world's anti fascist war.
In the spring of 1942 and 1943, China sent the most elite troops to form an expeditionary force, and twice entered Myanmar as the main force to fight with the cooperation of British and American allies.[16]The Chinese army has successively invested more than 300000 troops in the battle to aid Myanmar. In more than three years, it has wiped out more than 60000 Japanese troops, making great contributions to the cause of liberation of the people in Southeast Asia, and saving the Allied forces in the battlefield in Southeast Asia.The Chinese army has become an important strategic pillar of the alliance in the Asia Pacific region.[17]
In 1944, the army and the people of the Liberated Areas began a local counter offensive.In April 1945, the Seventh National Congress of the Communist Party of China was held.On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan.On August 9,Mao ZedongThe call of "the last war against the Japanese aggressors" was issued, and the Anti Japanese War entered into a major counter offensive.[12]
In early August 1945,U.S.AIn JapanHiroshimaAndNagasakiAfter dropping nuclear weapons successively, the Emperor of Japan announced unconditional surrender on August 15.The Japanese Empire signed a letter of surrender to the Allies on September 2, accepting《Cairo Declaration》And《Potsdam Declaration 》Stipulate and return the occupied foreign territories.Immediately“Puppet Manchukuo”After the collapse of Wang Jingwei's government, the Taipeng Islands were taken over by the Republic of China.
War of Liberation
January 1946Political Consultative ConferenceHeld in Chongqing, the Political Consultative Conference passed a resolution in favor of the people, which was welcomed by the people of the country.Although the Kuomintang also announced its approval of the CPPCC resolution, it made many reservations.Then, at the Second Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Kuomintang held in March, he publicly refused to recognize the binding force of the CPPCC and continued to advocateone-party dictatorship。At the same time, they oppose and oppose the demands of the people of the whole country to abide by the resolutions of the CPPCCcivil warThe "Jiaochangkou Event"“Li Wen's murder case”And“Xiaguan Massacre”And so on.
In May 1946, the National Government returned its capital from Chongqing to Nanjing, and the Kuomintang Communist Party negotiations were also held in Nanjing.Chiang Kai shek refused to followNorthern Jiangsu、Northern AnhuiAnd other places withdrew, openly mobilized 200000 troops, and in June laid siege to IsraelXuanhua StoreThe Central Plains Liberated Area centered on the Central Plains launched a full-scale civil war.
On April 21, 1949, Chairman of the Chinese People's Revolutionary Military CommissionMao ZedongAnd the Commander in Chief of the Chinese People's Liberation ArmyZhu DeIssue an order to march into the country.Hundreds of thousands of heroes crossed the Yangtze River, destroyed the defense line of the Kuomintang army, and liberated Nanjing on the 23rd.The last session of the Republic of China on the mainlandReactionary governmentThe downfall declared the end of the Kuomintang's 22 year rule on the mainland.Then, the PLA captured Shanghai, Hangzhou, Nanchang, Wuhan and other cities, wiped out more than 430000 Kuomintang troops and achievedRiver Crossing CampaignThe victory of.The remaining Kuomintang troops retreated to Guangdong, Guangxi, southwest, northwest and Taiwan.Chiang Kai shek went from behind the scenes to the front, set up an extraordinary committee of the Kuomintang in Guangzhou to directly control the military and political power, and then retreated to Sichuan to try to resist.In order to eliminate completelyKuomintang reactionariesThe People's Liberation Army launched a separate war of pursuit and annihilation, sweeping Guangdong, Fujian, southwest and northwest regions.Under the circumstances of the People's Liberation Army's successful march,Suiyuan, Xinjiang, Hunan, Yunnan and other provinces of the Kuomintang military and political personnel electrified the uprising.Chiang Kai shekHe led other troops to flee to Taiwan Island.According to the Opinions on the Correct Use of Taiwan related Publicity TermsTaiwanThe political power should be called“Taiwan authorities”Or "Taiwan related parties" and "Taiwan related parties" do not use the so-called "Republic of China", nor do they use the so-called "Republic of China" calendar.[5]
physical geography
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Location and neighbouring countries
China is located in the east of the Asian continent and on the west coast of the Pacific Ocean. Its territory was largely established during the Kangxi, Yongzhou and Qianlong periods of the former Qing Dynasty. However, after the late Qing Dynasty, the eastern and western powers devoured China, a large area of land was lost,metal cupNot all.After entering the Republic of China, China's territory was only 11.1665 million square kilometers.Its territory extends to the eastHeilongjiangAndWusuli RiverConfluence, westthe pamirs, starting from the southNansha IslandsOfZengmu Dark Sand, north to the center of Heilongjiang River to the north of Mohe River.It borders Korea to the east, Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar to the south, India, Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal and Afghanistan to the west and south, and Russia to the north.The shape is slightly like a Begonia leaf.Across the sea, it faces Japan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and other countries and regions.
terrain
The west of China is mountainous and grid like, while the east is mostly plain and hilly.The mountains stretching from west to east include Altay Mountain, Tianshan Mountain, Kunlun Mountain, Qilian Mountain, Karakoram Mountain, Gangdise Mountain, Himalayas, Yinshan Mountain, Qinling Mountains and Nanling Mountains;Hengduan Mountain stretches from north to south;In the east of Tongjing, the mountains stretching from northeast to southwest include the Great Khingan Mountains and Taihang Mountains.The eastern plains mainly include the Northeast Plain, the North China Plain and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River Plain.
The terrain of the country is a three-step ladder. The Tibetan Plateau is located in the west, with an average altitude of more than 4000 meters. It is the highest and largest plateau in the world, with huge plateaus and basins inlaid between mountains.It is the first step.To the north and east of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau are plateaus and basins with an altitude of 1000-2000 meters, including the Yunnan Guizhou Plateau, the Loess Plateau, the Mongolian Plateau, the Sichuan Basin, the Tarim Basin and the Junggar Basin.It is the second step.To the east of the line from the Great Khingan Mountains to the Xuefeng Mountains, there are hills below 1000 meters to plains below 200 meters above sea level.It is the third step.
Rivers and lakes
Because the terrain is high in the west and low in the east, most rivers in the country flow from west to east and finally into the Pacific Ocean.The main rivers are Liaohe River, Haihe River, Yellow River, Huaihe River, Yangtze River, Pearl River, etc.To the south, the Brahmaputra River flows into the Indian Ocean through India, Bangladesh and Myanmar;To the north, the Ertix River flows into the Arctic Ocean.There are also inland rivers that cannot flow into the sea, the largest being the Tarim River.The Yangtze River is the longest, reaching 6300 kilometers, with a drainage area of 1.8 million square kilometers.Next is the Yellow River, which is 5464 kilometers long and has a drainage area of more than 750000 square kilometers.
Large and small lakes are distributed all over the country, and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River plain and the northern Tibetan plateau are the most densely distributed.The larger one is Poyang Lake in Jiangxi, with an area of 3976 square kilometers;Dongting Lake in Hunan, 3915 square kilometers;Hongze Lake in Jiangsu, 3780 square kilometers;Taihu Lake, more than 2200 square kilometers.In addition to the above fresh water lakes, there are also salt water lakes, the largest Qinghai Lake, with an area of more than 4400 square kilometers, and Lop Nur in Xinjiang, with an area of more than 2500 square kilometers.
In addition to natural rivers and lakes, there is also the artificially dug Beijing Hangzhou Grand Canal, which starts from Beijing in the north and ends in Hangzhou in the south, with a length of 1782 kilometers, connecting the five water systems of the Haihe River, the Yellow River, the Huaihe River, the Yangtze River and the Qiantang River.
islands
The Chinese mainland is surrounded by the sea to the east and south, the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea from north to south, the East China Sea to the south of the Yangtze River estuary, and the South China Sea to the south of the Taiwan Strait.The Bohai Sea is an inland sea, and the rest are marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean.There are more than 5000 islands listed in the sea, with a total area of about 80000 square kilometers. The largest island is Taiwan Island, 35700 square kilometers, followed by Hainan Island, 34000 square kilometers.
Climate and resources
Due to the thermal difference between the ocean and the continent, there is a significant monsoon climate. In addition, the land is vast and the terrain is complex. The temperature and rainfall vary greatly across China, and the climate types are diverse.It is generally hot in summer, dry and cold in the north and warm and wet in the south in winter.
China is rich in natural resources because of its vast land, complex terrain, different climates, and various natural characteristics of relevant regions.In the plain area, it is rich in wheat, rice, corn, soybeans and other crops, as well as oil, hemp, sugar and other economic crops;It produces tea, tung oil, silk and medicinal materials in mountainous areas.Cattle, sheep, horses and camels are bred on the grassland, and the forests are mainly concentrated in the northeast, southwest, Fujian, Taiwan and other places.Coal, oil and iron are all over the country.Other minerals are also extremely rich.
administrative division
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The first time was in the early years of the Republic of China.At the beginning of the Republic of Chinaadministrative divisionThe establishment is still in line with the system of the Qing Dynasty. There are 23 provinces in the country, and the provincialHouse（State）, County (Stateoffice）Three level management system.In January 1913,high Qing officialThe government promulgated the Order on Unifying the Organization of the Existing Local Administrative Offices at All Levels, abolishing the old local system, and establishing a new provinceAvenue, County level management system.The country is divided into 22 provinces.Outside the provinces.5 morespecial administrative region, except in the capitalJingzhaoOutside the Special Administrative RegionShanxi Provincethe Great WallOriginal naturalization to the north 12Zhili HallOld site, andInner MongoliaHetaoInternal and externalYikezhao、UlanchapEstablishment of pasture in Zhusheng Banner of the Second LeagueSuiyuanSpecial Administrative Region;With Zhili's YuanChengde, Chaoyang ErfuheChifengZhili PrefectureOld land, and Inner MongoliaZhaowudaZhuozuotu Second League PastureJehol Special Administrative Region;withChuanbianAdjacent to YunnanTibetEqual places are classified asChuanbianSpecial Administrative Region;Take DushiZhang Bei、DuolunAll regions and SuiyuanFengzhen、Xinghe、Liangcheng, Taolin 4 counties, and Inner MongoliaXilingol LeagueChahar Eight Banners Pasturechahar Special Administrative Region.have otherOuter Mongolia, Tibet andNingxia、Qinghai32 in two regionsFirst level administrative regionStroke.Provinces and special administrative regions have roads and counties under roads.It is basically used in Mongolia and Tibetthe Qing dynastyOld system.MongoliaInner MongoliauseAlliance、flagSystem,North of the Gobi desertIt adopts the ministerial (league) and flag system, and Tibet adopts the patriarchal and non patriarchal system.In 1914, there were 92 Taos in China, and in 1920, the number increased to 96.In 1914, there were 1740 counties in China, including 209 county-level institutions such as banners, and 1949 three-level administrative regions. By 1920, there were 1885 counties, 223 administrative bureaus and banners, and 2108 three-level administrative regions.
The second time isNorthern Expedition WarAfter victory.1927the Nanjing National GovernmentAfter its establishment, according to Dr. Sun Yat sen'sFundamentals of National Reconstruction by Sun Yat-senAbolish road level divisions nationwide, and implement a two-level management system at the provincial and county levels.On June 21, 1928Zhili ProvincebyHebei Province, change Beijing toBeiping Special City, merge 20 counties of Jingzhao into Hebei ProvinceKoubei RoadInto Chahar.On September 5, 1928, Rehe, Chahar, Chuanbian four special administrative regions, NingxiaEscort envoyandNingxia RoadThe areas under its jurisdiction were changed to Rehe, Chahar, Suiyuan, NingxiaXikang5 provinces.In October of the same year, Qinghai Province and Gansu ProvinceXining RoadThe area under its jurisdiction was changed to Qinghai Province.January 30, 1929Fengtian ProvinceChange toLiaoning Province。There are 28 provincial-level institutions in China, as well as two other places, Outer Mongolia and Tibet.In 1932, the National Government implemented the system of the first county as the regional convening unit.Established in October of the same yearAdministrative supervision area, also known asSpecial areaThe special region is not an administrative division, but a provincial agency.In 1938Kuomintang controlled areaThere were 142 special regions in 15 provinces, which reached 209 by 1947.
The third time isCounter-Japanese WarAfter victory.After the victory of the Anti Japanese War, the National Government willThree Eastern ProvincesChanged to Liaoningnorthern part of Liaoning province, AntonJilin、Hejiang, SongjiangHeilongjiang, NenjiangXing'an9 provinces, meanwhileTaiwan ProvinceWith the return to the motherland, the number of provincial units in the country has increased to 35, and there are two other places, Outer Mongolia and Tibet.On January 5, 1946, the National Government recognized the independence of Outer Mongolia.On June 5, 1947, the National Government announced 12 hospital cities at the provincial level, and the number of first level administrative divisions reached 48.As of June 5, 1947, the National Government announced that there were 2246 county-level divisions in China, including 2016 counties, 57 ordinary cities, 40 administrative bureaus, 1 administration bureau, 132 banners and leagues, except for Tibet.
Before 1940, the National Government divided counties into three grades, and after 1940, counties were divided into six grades.
Adopted by the National Assembly on December 25, 1946.January 1, 1947, Nanjing, ChinaNational GovernmentPromulgated, the Constitution has a total of 141 articles, which are divided into 13 chapters: the state system, sovereignty, land, citizens, national power, Congress, the President, the State Council, courts, laws, accounting, local systems, and the amendment, interpretation, and effectiveness of the Constitution.The characteristics of the Constitution of the Republic of China are as follows: 1. Complete articles and democratic forms.Although the provisions on people's rights and freedoms in the Constitution of the Republic of China are the most specific in all the "official" constitutional documents since the late Qing Dynasty's Imperial Constitutional Outline, their essence does not differ. They cover up the reality of one party dictatorship with hypocritical human rights.[25]2. The nominal implementation of local autonomy actually confirms the sphere of influence of domestic warlords.[24]
The government of the Republic of China is the governing body of the Republic of China. Its history can be traced back to the provisional government of the Republic of China founded in Nanjing in 1911, and then it has experienced many regime changes such as the Beiyang Government and the National Government.
judicial office
The judicial organ of the Republic of China is the Court of Justice of the Republic of China.
Successive Presidents
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Successive presidents of the Republic of China (including temporary president, president and acting president)(1912-1949)：
Successive presidents of the Republic of China (including temporary president, president and acting president)
On December 12, 1915, he became emperor and changed the country name toChinese Empire, YearHong Xian。On March 22, 1916, the imperial system was announced to be abolished.
On July 1, 1917, a coup was launched, announcing the restoration of the Qing Dynasty.On July 12, Li Yuanhong's regime sufferedDuan QiruiOf“Rebel army”Overthrow.
Commander's Flag of the Three Armies of the Republic of China
National Defense Forces of the Republic of China《Constitution of the Republic of China》According to Article 36, the President of the Republic of China commands the army, navy and air force, exercises the power of command and commands the army, directly instructs the Minister of National Defense, and the Minister orders the Chief of Staff to command and implement it.
During the period of the Republic of China on the mainland and its neighboring countries, exceptthe Second World WarIn addition, since the Qing DynastySoviet RussiaIn Xinjiang, Mongolia, Northeast, andbritainThere have been border conflicts in Tibet.
The Republic of China sent a small number of troops to participate in the Beiyang governmentthe First World War。
During the Second World War, there were always differences and conflicts with the Soviet Union and Britain over the western border, and some problems even reachedThe People's Republic of ChinaThe period was also solved by force.The Chinese army and the Japanese army fought 22 battles with more than 100000 people in Songhu, Xuzhou, Wuhan, Changsha, Nanchang, Yizao, Changheng, Jiujiang, Guilin, western Hunan, western Henan, northern Hubei, and western Yunnan, more than 200 battles, more than 200000 battles, and 2.61 million Japanese troops were annihilated and captured.[23]
Economics
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Silver Dollar of the Republic of China
At the beginning of the Second World War, 92 cities were opened to the outside world,RailwayandSteam turbineConnect these cities to the outside world.New jobs and Chinese and foreign enterprises developed in these cities. The industrial growth rate reached 13.4% between 1912 and 1920, and there was a short period between 1921 and 1922depressionFrom 1923 to 1936, it was 8.7%, from 1912 to 1942, the average growth rate was 8.4%, and from 1912 to 1949, the average growth rate was 5.6%.In the Republic of China period before World War II, despite the continuous wars, the industrial growth rate was still as high as 8-9%.The traditional view is that the First World War reduced the number of foreign products to Chinanational industryThe view that China's national industry had the opportunity to develop during World War I was arbitrary and groundless. In fact, World War I reduced foreign direct investment in China, and many industrial projects had to be postponed due to the lack of urgently needed equipment.The proposition that foreign investment has hindered the development of China's national industry is not supported by empirical datamodern industryThe proportion of China's total modern industry had not declined before World War II, while China's per capita foreign investment was US $3.75 in 1914 and US $6.97 in 1936, much lower than that of India and Latin America.In the 1930s, foreign investment accounted for only 1% of the net national product.
rural economy
Republicanland systemSince 1930land lawIt was more mature than the late Qing Dynasty.But due to the lack ofPrimogenitureThe war continues and the institutionalized land market is still underdeveloped, so each household's land is divided into small pieces.The average land per household was 2.62 hectares in 1910 and 2.27 hectares in 1933.During the Republic of ChinaLand ownershipAlthough the distribution is uneven, it is more average than that of other backward countries. 73% of households own 15 mu of land on average, and their land accounts for 28% of the total land, while 5% of households own more than 50 mu of arable land, accounting for 34% of the total arable land.the Republic of China eracapitalismFormalHirelingLeaseholdlarge-scaleCommercial agricultureOperation is not common.
In the 1930s, 50% of the agricultural populationtenancy About 30% of the land farmed by tenant farmers is totallyTenancyOver 20%tenant farmerCultivate your own land and lease part of it.
Yangtze river basinThe detailed waterway transportation network is used to form a regional food market, so the division of labor, specialization, urbanization, and primitive capitalism in this regionSong dynastyIt has always been the most developed region in China.Here professional tenancy brokers appear.The tenant farmers are not necessarily very poor. Some large tenant farmers are richer than the small owner farmers. They have formed the seeds of capitalist tenancy and commercial agricultural management of hired workers.
Republic of ChinaMinistry of the InteriorThe survey of 849 counties in 1932 recorded the diversification of tenancy contracts. 220 counties were very common in terms of land rent. The rent mainly took three forms: cash, fixed land rent in kind and divided land rent.The 1934 survey report of the National Government said that 50.7% of the tenants paid fixed rent in kind, 28.1% paid share rent, and 21.2% paid fixed cash rent. The 1934-1935 land survey showed that these three groups of figures were 60%, 15%, and 24.62% respectively, while the labor rent accounted for 0.24%.The amount of land rent divided depends on whether the landlord provides itseed, toolsFarm animalHowever, the rent of divided land rent is 12.9% higher than the fixed real land rent and 11% higher than the fixed cash land rent.The average land lease was 43.3% when the landlord did not provide seeds, tools and farm animals.Fixed land rent in kind is more common in areas with a high proportion of tenants and high output.
In 1930, there was a clause in the land law that gave the tenant the right to renew his contract indefinitely, unless he took the initiative to reclaim the land for self cultivation.This clause is not conducive to the formation of an efficient land system.Although this provision was not strictly implemented in the Kuomintang governed areas in the 1930s and 1940s, it was laterland reformIt has set a precedent for infringement of property rights, which has a long-term negative impact on economic development.In the 1930s, the National Government also formulated a policy to limit rent to 37%, which was only implemented in a few provinces and regions in 1949.The National Government's policy of rent restriction during the Anti Japanese WarEighth Route ArmyIt is also widely practiced in controlled areas.
These policies also have a long-term negative impact on economic development because they undermine people's confidence in the free contract system.In the 1930s, China's agricultural productivityriceIn terms of yield per mu, slightly higher thanMeiji RestorationOfJapan, 30% lower than Japan in the 1930s,WheatThe unit yield is equivalent to that at that timeU.S.A, butlabour productivityIt is one fourth of that of the United States.All this shows that although China's agriculture was not modernized at that time, it was not very backward.
But throughout the Republic of China, property rightscivil law, Land Lawcompany lawGradually modernize through the adoption and implementation of.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the government's arbitrary infringement of property became illegalPermanent tenancyConcept, andlandlordThe concept that land can always be redeemed at the original price after land sale has been replaced by the modern concept of free land sale and judicial cases.During the Republic of China, China's rural areas remained highfertility rateAnd highmortalityThe basically self-sufficient rural population accounts for 75% of the population, and the agricultural output accounts for 65% of the output.The population involved in a higher level of division of labor is mainly from large and medium-sized cities, accounting for only 6% of the population.
business
In the Republic of China period, although the countryside was basically self-sufficient, professional businessmen in commercial developed cities andcoastal areasIt is more developed than other backward countries, which is called commercial capitalism or primitive capitalism.Shanghai、NingboThe domestic trade between coastal areas and other areas of the Yangtze River basin and the division of labor in the production of final consumer goods are the main businesses of these businessmen.
This kind of commercial capitalism not only leads to the deepening of the division of business, but also different professional businessmen deal with different aspects of tradeWarehouseThe emergence of special coordination and regulation of commercial activitiesguildandChamber of CommerceThe emergence of, and produced a fairly developed China's own financial network.Shanxi Ticket NoIt is such a network of financial services that can meet the needs of developed commercebillandcredit。variousbankandpawnshopIt also forms a network in coastal and developed areas.variouscustomary lawandprivate lawIt has also developed to adjust the division of labor and related transactions in developed commercial and financial activities to improve transaction efficiency.
In the silk weaving industry in the Yangtze River basin, there has been a piece by piece outsourcing system between merchants and handicraftsmen.Different from the late Qing Dynasty, the modern financial and trade system developed in the Republic of China.From 1929 to 1930, the government got rid of the shackles of having to pay war reparations for the fixed amount of tariffs, fully gained the autonomy of tariffs, and increased the tariff rate.In the 1930s, the government also took back someconcessionHowever, the economic effect of the concession recovery is negative.1930Import dutyfromsilver standardChange togold standard, 1928Salt taxUnify in the whole countryFinancial systemAll kinds of exorbitant taxes and levies are unified into the central government's tax revenue and the local government's tax revenueLand taxIn 1933, the currency was unified and almost ceased to be usedSilver, used by the government in 1935foreign exchange reserveTo support the establishment of modernizationPaper money system, silver was completely prohibited from being used as currency.OfficialCentral Bank of China、Bank of China、Bank of Communications, officially issued paper currency, and the government began to tryannual budgetThe tax and financial reporting systems have been greatly improved.The modern government bond system also developed from 1931 to 1932.The bonds are mainly purchased by national government banks and Shanghai private banks.
National government banks play the role of central banks and commercial banks at the same time. The government and commercial banks are indistinguishable, making corruption and the stateopportunismInstitutionalization of behavior.The big private banks, through the cross arrangement of personnel with the four major official banks, have also made the characteristics of bad capitalism such as collusion between officials and businessmen appear.However, compared with the system after 1949, the private banking industry was quite free and developed in the Republic of China. From 1928 to 1937, a total of 160 private modern banks were established, and they had 1597 branches.The capital of modern banks increased from 186 million yuan in 1928 to 447 million yuan in 1935, and the deposits increased from 1.12 billion yuan to 3.78 billion yuan.However, due to the monopoly position of the four official banks, considerable financial resources are mainly used to provide the government with military expenditure for the unification war, and the proportion of public facilities construction used to improve transaction efficiency is too small. The four major government banks are not divided between official and commercial banks, and cannot effectively support profitable economic development according to the law of market competition.
finance
The development of modern finance and paper currency system can greatly improve transaction efficiency, thus promoting the evolution of division of labor and improving the productivity of the whole society.However, since China has not yet been truly unified, 70% of the fiscal revenue controlled by the central government was used for the unification war from 1928 to 1937, while the central control over local finance only reached in 1929Zhejiang、Jiangsu、Anhui、JiangxiandHenanFive provinces.The central and local government's expenditure from 1931 to 1936 only accounted for 3.2-6% of the national income, much lower than the 8.2% of the U.S. government in 1929.
Especially after World War II, because the government nationalized a large number of Japanese private enterprises, the monopoly of state-owned enterprises on heavy industry was greatly strengthenedNationalization of industryAnd the institutional development of restraining private free enterprises has created economic structural conditions.
In the later period of the Republic of China, the national government lost the war and the financial system collapsed,Inflation rateUp to 200%.Therefore, paper money has become a tool for the government to rob people's property. People have abandoned paper money and returned to commodity currency andBarterAs a result, the division of labor has greatly declined and productivity has collapsed.
communications and transportation industry
The traffic conditions in the Republic of China also showedDual economyCharacteristics of.Most of the goods are still transported by the backward traditional mode of transportation, which was traditional in 1933manual、Wooden boatThe contribution of animal power transportation mode to national income is three times that of modern transportation mode.Japan produced in Northeast China in 1915coking coal5.74 yuan/ton, delivered toHanyangIt is 24.54 yuan per ton, and the transaction cost is 3.27 times of the production cost.This is mainly due to political instability and the delay in railway construction.
traffic
At the end of the Qing Dynasty, 9618 kilometers of railways were built in total, and 15000 kilometers were built in the Republic of China, one third of which were built by Japanese in the northeast.There was almost no road construction in the Qing Dynasty. Due to the need of the unification war, the National Government carried out large-scale road construction, which was built into 116000 kilometers, mostly by the Kuomintang government after 1928.From the customs records, the non motorized transport of goods began to decline in the 1920s.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China is the highest authority in charge of foreign affairs and related foreign affairs of the Republic of China.In 1911, after the founding of the Republic of China, the Qing DynastyMinistry of Foreign AffairsWas reorganized into the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Li Fan DepartmentIt was abolished because all ethnic groups were equal.
The highest leading position of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China was called "the General Director of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China" during the period of the Beiyang Government, and "the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China" during the period of the National Government.The former site of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China is located in Jiangsu ProvinceNanjing CityZhongshan North RoadNo. 32, now the seat of Jiangsu Provincial People's Congress Standing Committee and other units.
Culture
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thought
During the period of the Republic of China, people never stopped their pursuit of democracy and science, and the trend of thought and movement aimed at this continued.The first to raise these two big flags isthe May 4th Movement。After the May 4th Movement, the trend of thought and movement in pursuit of science and democracy continued to develop.In science, the scientific schoolhistorical materialismSend a counterattackMetaphysical schoolOf“Debate between science and metaphysics”；The "scientific movement" under the guidance of the "theory of scientific salvation" from the early 1930s to the Anti Japanese War;contemporaneousleft wingPeople engaged in the "new social science" movement.In terms of democracy, there are people's democratic movements led by the CPC;Hu Shi、Luo LongjiActivatedbourgeois class“Human rights movement”；In the later period of the War of Resistance against Japan, a nationwide movement of democratic nation building was launched.On the eve of the outbreak of the all-around war of resistance against Japan, the left-wing intellectuals also launched aNew Enlightenment Movement In order to inherit the May 4th Movement and surpass the May 4th Movement, we once again took democracy and science as the goal of enlightenment, demonstrating the spiral rise of the development of cultural and ideological movement.
Not only during the Anti Japanese War, but also after it, we can still see the aftereffects of this movement.The worship of democracy and science has become the soul of the times of the culture of the Republic of China.During this period, the development of all fields of culture was permeated with the spiritual pursuit of democratization and scientization.In terms of education, the most authoritative guiding principle of this educational reform isDeweyPublicizedPopulism(or democratic) education.It emphasizes the equality of the right to receive education, pays attention to the cultivation of human personality and independent personality, and attaches great importance to the spirit of experiment, which contributes greatly to the formation of modern education in China.
literature
In terms of literature and art, there has always been a fervent pursuit of democracy and scientific spirit.Since the May 4th Movement,writings in vernacularBegin to replaceclassical Chinese, exposing and lashing feudalismObscurantismIt has become one of the most important themes of Chinese literature and art.Lu XunOf《to shout》《True Story of Ah Q》And Sister Xianglin,Ba JinOf“Torrent Trilogy ”—《home》《spring》《autumn》Are classic works that perfectly combine this theme with the form of vernacular.Such works are known as "enlightenment literature" in the literary history circle.In additionPopular Language MovementThe rise of "workers, peasants and soldiers literature and art" in the Yan'an period is also a direct product of advocating democratic spirit.In press and publication, the pursuit of democratization and scientization is equally strong and persistent.
population
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During the Republic of China, the population was about 400 millionHan nationalityThe population is the majority, accounting for more than 90%, followed by other ethnic minorities, and the population is less than 10% of the total population of the country.
The 38 years of the Republic of China were only a brief moment in history, which was a very unstable transitional period in politics.In the history of population development, it is also just a turbulent transition period, and the population data is incomplete and inaccurate.Through the integration of various data, we can roughly know that the population in 1912 was 419.64 million, and in 1949 was 541.67 million, basically in a slow growth state.The population of the Republic of China had several characteristics: high birth rate, high mortality rate and low growth rate. At that time, the national mortality rate was 2.76%,South China 3.04%,SichuanIt is 4%, while the infant mortality rate is even higher, reaching 15.6%. The average life expectancy is only 35 years old, even in cities, it is only 40 years old.The imbalance of gender ratio, with more men than women, caused many social problems. At that time, the ratio of men to women was 110:100.Population density is unbalanced.The population density in the southeast coastal areas is high, and Jiangsu has increased to 379 people/km2, whilenorthwestThen there will be no people,XinjiangThe area is 2.38 people/km2.
nation
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China is a unified multi-ethnic country, including the Han nationality and more than 50ethnic minority。During the Republic of China, the population was about 400 million, with the Han nationality accounting for more than 90%, followed by other ethnic minorities, and the population was less than 10% of the total population of the country.
The Republic of China upholds equality and freedom“The Republic of Five Nationalities”。The identification of ethnic minorities in the Republic of China period is the internal need for China to build a "nation state" since modern times. The work of ethnic classification and identification itself is to provide academic support for maintaining national unity and border stability;At the same time, the national classification standards constructed by scholars in the Republic of China with reference to western ethnological knowledge also provided a scientific standard for the work of national identification in New China.The work of national identification in New China continued the study of national classification in the Republic of China.[8]
The beginning of modern education of Chinese ethnic minorities is the contribution of the Republic of China;The formulation of the future national education policy is also to learn the profound lessons from the national education policy in the Republic of China.[9]
The government of the Republic of China, which represents the bourgeoisie, tends to govern the nation by law for its own ruling needs, and has formulated national policies with national equality, autonomy, industry, etc. as the main content, which objectively has the characteristics of overall system, era development and historical progress;However, its class nature determines that its national policy is deceptive, hypocritical and utopian.Fundamentally speaking, the ethnic policy of the Republic of China government could not really solve the ethnic problems of China at that time, and eventually failed together with the Republic of China government.[10]
China is a multi religious country.The main beliefs of Chinese religious believers areBuddhism、Taoism、Islamism、CatholicismandChristianityChinese citizens can freely choose and express their beliefs and religious identity.At the same time, China is also one of the countries with more vigorous religious development in the world, among which Buddhism, Protestantism and Taoism have the largest number of believers in China.China's religious culture has the theory of "Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism";General Chinese people, on the basis of ancestor worship, are influenced by Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, which are called Chinese folk beliefs.Now it mainly includes Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, etc.
science and technology
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After 1911, a large number of overseas students returned home in succession, most of whom were young and promising, eager to develop the scientific cause of the motherland.They vigorously publicized the great power of science and spread the latest western scientific knowledge at that time.Faced with the chaotic political situation at that time, they shouted the slogans of "saving the country through science" and "saving the country through industry", and practiced them, forming a new trend of thought among Chinese young intellectuals and students in the early years of the Republic of China.
Geologist, 1912Zhang HongzhaoFirst, we call for the establishment of a geological survey institute;Same yearGaoluTo prepare for the establishment of the Central Observatory;In 1928, the famous educatorCai YuanpeiWith the efforts of othersAcademia SinicaLater, the Peiping Research Institute and various research institutes were established, and several private research institutions were also established.The establishment of the Institute is an epoch-making event in the history of science and technology in China. It shows that China has formed a professional scientific and technological team. They are the backbone of the establishment and development of China's modern scientific and technological cause, and the guarantee of rejuvenating China's science and technology.
From 1912 to 1937, in just 25 years, there were more than 110 associations (excluding the medical part), involving a wide range of modern science and technology.Some disciplines such asgeology、meteorology、physicsIn some fields, etc., they have made a number of achievements with the international advanced level at that time.stayEngineering technologyFor example, it can imitate 10000 tonsship, more advancedaircraft、automobile, variousMachine tool。ChineseengineerWe have mastered the applicationreinforced concreteThe technology of high-rise buildings has built a world-classQian Tang River Bridge。China's modern science and technology were established and developed during this period, and the gap between science and technology and the West was greatly shortened.This period undoubtedly has special significance in the history of Chinese science and technology.
In the 1920s, the research institutes of the Central Academy of Sciences have made remarkable research achievements in the following 20 years.From 1928 to 1929, where is the historical languageAnyangXiaotun VillageexploreYin ruins, found a large number ofShang Dynastybronzewareandoracular inscriptions on tortoise shells and bones, making ancient ChinaCredibility historyGoing up for thousands of years, it has become a major event in the history of archaeology in China and the world, which marks the maturity of Chinese modern archaeology science.
The Institute of Meteorology has observed and studied the laws of climate change in China,Zhu KezhenAbout ChinarainfallandtyphoonThe research work of this paper has attracted the attention of the international meteorological community.
