Medieval history itself can also be divided into three stages: the early, middle and late stages.Terminology“Dark Age”The "dark period" generally refers to the early Middle Ages.
The term "medieval" was used in the late 15th centuryItalyHumanismpersonBiondoStarted using.Of this periodEuropeThere is no powerful regimerule。Feudal separatism brought frequent wars,Catholic ChurchThe imprisonment of human thought caused the stagnation of the development of science and technology and productivity, and the people lived in hopeless pain, so the medieval or early medievalEurope and AmericaCommonly known as“Dark Age”Traditionally, it is believed that this is a period of relatively slow development in the history of European civilization, as well as a period of social and ideological transformation (about its name, it is also called Medieval Ages or Middle Times, also known as Dark Ages).
About the Dark Age
The Middle Ages are often portrayed as an "age of ignorance and superstition"“ReligionHis speech is above personal experience and rational activities ".This isThe Renaissanceandenlightenment campaignAt that time, scholars compared their knowledge and culture with those of the Middle Ages.Scholars in the Renaissance regarded the Middle Ages as a period of civilization decline;Enlightenment scholars believed that reason was better than belief, so they regarded the Middle Ages as an era of ignorance and superstition.In fact, there are many controversies about the Middle Ages. At one time, the term "Dark Age" was equivalent to "Middle Ages". After 1904, the term was more limited to "early Middle Ages".
Encyclopedia x ignorance: illustrating the Middle Ages
Another view is that until the 9th century AD, most late antiquity scholarsAugustineHe believes that human beings are in the sixth and last stage of history, namely《Bible》On“The Book of Revelation”The prophecy of "the end of the day" in, therefore, it means darkness.
It is generally accepted by historians that "the Middle AgesDark Age”This word was invented in the 14th centuryItalyThe RenaissanceHumanismscholarPetrarchInvented.He traveled around Europe to rediscover and publish classical Latin and Greek works, aiming at restoring Roman classical Latin language, art and culture. He did not think it worthwhile to study the changes and events since the fall of Rome in 410AD.Humanists view history not in terms of Augustine's religion, but in terms of society (science), that is, through classical culture, literature and art;Therefore, humanists call this 900 year period of stagnation in the development of classical culture a "dark period".
Petrarch divided European history into two stages:Ancient RomeAndancient GreekPeriod;The second is the "dark period".Humanists also believe that one dayImperium RomanumWill rise again and restore the purity of classical culture.At the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century, humanists believed that a modern age had begun, so logically speaking, a "middle age" had been formed.
Therefore, since humanists, historians have also held negative views on the "dark period" and the "Middle Ages".Christianity in the 16th and 17th centuriesprotestantProtestants also tookCatholicismThe corruption of was written into this history.In response to the Protestant accusations, the Catholic reformers also gave a picture opposite to the "dark period": a period of social and religious harmony, not dark at all.For the "dark period", many modern negative ideas came from the 17th and 18th centuriesenlightenment campaignInKant andVoltaireIn their works.
Historical changes
In the early 19th century,Romantic MovementThis has changed the trend of one-sided negative concept of "dark times".
Medieval Europe
It gives a peaceful picture: the harmony between society and environment is rooted in the life of nature;Also respondenlightenment campaignInRationalismThe practice of completely transcending sensibility by reason and the emergingindustrial revolutionEnvironmental damage and pollution.Romantics' views on the "dark period" can still be seen in some cultural activities and festivals celebrating that period today, through the customs displayed and historical events that took place.
Romantic MovementIn the second half of the 19th century, great progress was made in archaeology, and many historical documents and cultural relics unknown to previous scholars were excavated and sorted out.However, the Sutton Hoo Grotto discovered in 1939 around 625 AD, and the research findings of Charles H. Haskins, a famous scholar of medieval studies, make the "dark period" no longer seem to be a suitable word.
Time characteristics
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dark ages
time
characteristic
early stage
fromLate Classical AgeFrom the beginning, until the early Middle Ages, the population decline, anti urbanization, invasion and migration of ethnic groups had not stopped.Large scale migration of people.
metaphase
After 1000 AD, with technological and agricultural innovation, trade flourished,Medieval Warm PeriodClimate changecrop yield As a result, the population of Europe has increased significantly.
advanced
In the late Middle Ages,famine，plagueAnd wars are everywhere, and the European population is significantly weakened;From 1347 to 1350,Black DeathIt killed about one third of Europeans.Disputes within the Catholic Church,SeparatismWith interstate conflicts, civil strife and peasant uprisings everywhere.With the development of culture and technology, great changes have taken place in European society, and Europe has gradually entered the modern era (the modern era divided by the three European traditions, namely Modern).
along withFrankish KingdomIt continued to expand, and by the middle of the sixth century, it had conqueredBurgundy、ThuringiaSome tribes in Bavaria and Saxony became the most powerful country in Western Europe at that time and established feudalismfiefs 。In 751, Gong XiangPiping the DwarfHe became the king of Franks and foundedCarolingian dynasty。stayCharlemagneDuring the reign, the national power reached its peak, annexed the Lombard Kingdom, and capturedSpainThe border area, occupied East Bavaria, conquered the Awar Khanate, and most of the land in Western Europe became the territory of the Frankish Kingdom.After the death of Charlemagne, the Frankish Kingdom was divided by a fraternal war, which was signed in August 843《Treaty of Verdun》Divided intoWest Francia 、Middle Francia andEast Frankish Kingdom , modernFrench、ItalyandGermanyThe territory of China is based on this treaty.
In 829,Wessex KingdomAnnexation of six other kingdomsEngland（England）。1066, Franceduke of Normandy William asked to inherit the throne by kinship. After being rejectedBattle of Hastings , seized the throne of the British King by force, known as“William the Conqueror ”(i.eWilliam I）, and establishedNorman DynastyLater, the grandson of the French king inherited the British throne, but this also caused the British and French royal families to carry outCentennial WarThe root cause of.
The predecessor of GermanyEast Frankish Kingdom The royal power declined, and the local princes' power was very strong.911 East FranksCarolingian dynastyAfter the extinction of the heir, the French royal family should have sent someone to succeed the king of Germany, but at this time Germany was invaded by the east, so the local dignitaries elected a duke from each other as the leader of the alliance to replace the king, which gave birth to the later German monarchy election system, which generally called itself "Caesar"elector The candidates selected from the vassals are not necessarily German vassals, but also foreign vassals (no throne but only nobility), such as French Earl, Italian Earl orLuxembourgDukes of other low-lying countries, often translated in China“emperor”Or "king" is more about reputation, and the right to elect a king is equal to that of local princes.This characteristic is considered by historians as the reason for his enthusiasm for external expansion.
In 951,Otto I Led the army to occupy the Lombard areaOtto II March to Rome.
In the feudal society of Europe, kings, nobles and knights of all sizesFeudal lordForm a pyramid likeranking systemHowever, their powers and obligations are limited. "My vassal's vassal is not my vassal." This complex hierarchical relationship has left the European feudal countries in a state of separatism for a long time, and the eastern China is centralized with "the whole world, the king's land; the land, the king's officials"Feudal monarchyIt's quite different.
The rulers of all countries are still engaged in war, plundering and annexation, and many countries have not yet emerged a stable unified regime.The feudal landlord relied onLand ownershipAnd the regime exploited the peasants.In Europe,Christian ChurchIt has become a tool of feudal rule. They and secular feudal lords jointly maintain the feudal system.The work of peasants and serfs was forced by the feudal lordLand rent in kindVarioustaxes and leviesAnd the church“Tithe tax”And other forms of misappropriation.The peasants' resistance continued, but there was no large-scale overthrow of a dynasty as many times as in Chinapeasant 's war。
The war in the Middle Ages was formed by loosely organized battle groups, which confronted and clashed with each other on the battlefield where strategies and mobilization were needed, and then evolved step by step.One part of the evolution is reflected in the development of different arms and weapons, and how to use them.The early army of the Dark Age was a group of unorganized foot soldiers.When heavy cavalry rose, the best army was a group of unorganized knights.
The dismounted soldiers will cause damage to the farmland along the way, and will cause greater damage during the siege.When the two armies confront each other, heavy cavalry is often placed at the front of the armyLight cavalryOn both wings, infantry andBowmanIn the post (Middle Ages).After the battle begins, heavy cavalry will take the lead in charging the enemy formation.The power of heavy cavalry charge is huge, and several successful charges can completely tear the enemy's formation.However, in a melee, the knights will try to fight their enemies one-on-one, and the dismounted soldiers will be sandwiched between the knights on both sides.In fact, this method of warfare is very dangerous, because most of the dismounted soldiers in the early medieval era were peasants recruited under the feudal system and had not received combat training.Bowmen are very suitable for city siege, but they also risk being destroyed on the battlefield.
By the late 14th century, commanders had strengthened the discipline of knights, making their troops more able to play a team role.But in the British army, althoughLongbowman They proved their value in many battlefields, but the knights did not pay too much attention to these shooters.Discipline also allows more and more knights to fight for reward, rarely for loyal and honorable fighters.In ItalyMercenaryIt is famous for long-term combat but little damage.In this period, soldiers of all classes are assets of the army and will not be abandoned easily.This has made the feudal army, which pursued glory in the past, gradually become a professional army that only cares about how much they will receive.
The cavalry will be specially divided into three teams or parts, and then one team will fight after another.The first wave of attacks will break through or disperse the enemy, and then the second or third wave of attacks can be subdued.Once the enemy escapes, they can kill or capture them.
In fact, if the knight takes personal action, it will do great harm to any commander's plan.Knights are most concerned about loyalty, glory and riding in the first rank of the first-class team.In order to strive for personal glory, the overall victory on the battlefield becomes second.After starting to fight on the battlefield, it will not be long before the knights attack the enemy they see, thus destroying the wholescheme of operations。
The best way to control them is for the commander to unload his knights when necessary.This is a common way for small armies, because these knights rarely expect to perform in combat.The dismounted knights can timely strengthen their fighting strength and boost the morale of the general dismounted army.These knights and other dismounted soldiers will be used to slow down the charge of the enemy's cavalry, or to fight in the rear of other battlefield fortifications.
The Battle of Cressy in 1346 was an example of cavalry's undisciplined behavior.At that time, the number of French troops was more than that of British troops (40000 to 10000), and there were many knights.The British divided the Longbowmen into three teams and put them into the battlefield under the protection of the stake.Between the three teams are two cavalries who unload their horses, while the cavalries who unload their horses in the third team are reserved as reserve troops.The French king also divided his knights into three parts and assigned Genonos' mercenaries to shoot English knights, but becauseCrossbowGet wet and not work.
In addition, the French knights ignored the efforts of the French king in organization. Shortly after the war began, they immediately became furious when they saw the enemy. They opened their mouths and shouted again and again, "Kill! Kill!" Because the French king could not stand the repeated inaccuracies of the Genoese arrows, he ordered the knights to move forward and knock down Genoese in front of themCrossbowman 。The battle lasted for a whole day. At last, British knights and longbowmen (who kept their bowstrings dry) defeated the undisciplined and disorderly French knights who rode horses.
By the end of the Middle Ages, the value of heavy cavalry on the battlefield was not as good as before, almost the same as that of projective troops and dismounted troops.During this period, people have already understood why the attacks deployed prudently still fail and the importance of training infantry.The rules of operations have changed. Markings, horse traps and trenches are often used by the army as protective tools to resist cavalry attacks.If the cavalrySpearmanAttacking archers (or gunners) will only produce a large number of wounded horses and cavalry.Knights will be forced to fight on foot or wait for the right time to attack.Only the enemy is moving, confused, or from a temporary battlefieldfortificationA destructive attack can only work if it comes out of the situation.
Religion
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The Bible in the Middle Ages
the popeIn order to maintain their independent statusPapal States, and forged《ConstantineGiftsInquisitionTo punish heresy, school education is also to serve theology.In the PopeGregory I (590-604), the ancient Roman library was also burned.
evolution
Christianity was born in the period of religious turmoil and economic upheaval in the vast Greek Roman world.During this period, the sense of security that the society gained from the traditional belief in the Greek Roman gods of the state religion was fading,Isis（Isis）、Mithra （Mithras）、Sibuli(Cyber), Sol Invictus andGnosticismGnosticism and Christianity are replacing traditional gods.These new sects not only compete with each other, but also integrate and absorb each other's doctrines andreligious rites。At the same time, their basic beliefs are strikingly consistent: the world is full of evil and will eventually die;If you are guilty in life, you should stay away from the secular world and edify yourself in the eternal spiritual field to obtain endless blessings.Therefore, they not only adopt different degrees ofAsceticismAt the same time, he believes that there is a savior who is willing to sacrifice his life for the believers in exchange for eternal life after death.This trend of thought was not only limited to religion, but also affected theNeo PlatonismandNew Pythagoranism。Some philosophical schools even played the role of religion, trying to guide their followers to achieve the goal of salvation through integration with God.
At that time when the traditional belief in gods was at the end, people longed to establish a close relationship with a ruler of the world, the only god with personalityPersonal contact。Many people began to believe that direct revelation from the only God could enable them to overcome the evil in the world.Thus, a large number ofexclusivenessThe group is planning its own unique redemption plan.Christianity is one of them.
Christianity slowly expanded in the Greco Roman world.In the first century after A.D,The Apostle PaulThe success in the Greek world enabled Christianity to expand beyond Jerusalem for the first time after its formation.It was not until 300 A.D. that Christianity really expanded to the whole territory of the Roman Empire.313,constantine i promulgationMilan edictIt stipulated that Christianity enjoyed full equal rights with other religions in the empire in law.In 392, Emperor Theodosius closed allPaganismIn temples, pagan worship is forbidden, otherwise it will be regarded as treason.From the rise to 392, after almost four centuries, the slow and peaceful expansion of Christianity finally won the victory.It is this seemingly slow but solid penetration that enables Christianity to adapt to the surrounding pagan century. Early Christians could not predict what role their religion would play.
In the process of its infiltration and for a long time after its victory, Christianity has made many major adjustments under the influence of the surrounding pagan academia, which are reflected in many knowledgeable Christians.Their works have had a profound impact on later generations.
Impact on science
Since Constantine declared the legalization of Christianity in 312 AD, Christians have changed from forced victims to persecutors.They are hostile to everything that does not conform to the Bible, including some new ideas and science.In history, many great thinkers and scientists were persecuted by Christians.In the Middle AgesHoly SeeOf“Inquisition”AndCalvinOf“Religious court”And other legitimate institutions persecute the so-called "heresy".On the other hand, the church also attaches great importance to the inheritance and education of ancient knowledge. Many universities in Europe were established with the support of the Holy See.
2. Persist in Copernicus“Heliocentric theory”OfBrunoHe was first put into prison. When he heard the sentence, he said contemptuously to the murderous executioners, "When you read the sentence, your fear was much greater than when I went to the fire." Later, on February 17, 1600Rome Flower SquareBurned to death.
3、Hipattia(375 – 415) is the first known female mathematician in history.edward gibbon On《History of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire》"She was pulled down from the car, stripped to nothing, and dragged to the church. For a group of barbaric and inhuman maniacs, she used sharp oysters to exploit her flesh from the bones, cut off her hands and feet, and threw it into the flames."
4、Galileo: famous Italian physicist and astronomer.He was persecuted by the Inquisition for defending scientific truth in 1633, and died of illness in 1642, when he was blind.
5. The scientist Pelosi was sentenced to death by the "Inquisition" for saying that fossils are animal remains rather than "creator's game".
6、SylvitIn the book "Revival of Christian Belief"blood circulationHe died after being roasted for more than two hours.
7、BelgiumPhysiologistVisalius, due to the publication ofanatomyHis book Human Structure forced him to go to the Holy Land in 1564——JerusalemIf you repent, you will die on your way home.
8. Amori:University of ParisProfessor, in 1210PantheismAfter death, the tomb was dug, and all ten disciples were executed.
9. Sikker: Professor of the University of Paris was killed alive by the church because of his so-called heresy in physical research.
Disease prevalence
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for the first time
There are two times, the first timePandemicbe calledPlague of Justinian , which occurred from 540 to 590.There is no clear statistics on how many people died as a result, but it is generally believed that the disease causedmediterranean seaAbout 25 million people died.The plague has weakenedByzantine EmpireJustinian's dream of restoring the glory of the Roman Empire also failed.
The second time
Rat inducedBlack DeathThe large-scale attack on Europe from 1346 to 1350 led to a sharp decline in the population of EuropemortalityUp to 100%.The Black Death is believed to beMongolianBring.About 1347, intercourseCrimeaAndMessina（sicily）InterGenoa Trade ships brought infectedBlack ratorfleaAnd soon spread to Genoa andVeniceIn 1348, the epidemic spread to France, Spain and Britain, and from 1348 to 1350, it spread eastward to Germany andScandinaviaAnd finally spread to northwest Russia in 1351.It is estimated that about 25 million people died in Europe, while about 55 million to 75 million people in Europe, Asia and Africa died in this epidemic.At that time, no therapeutic drugs could be found, and only isolation could be used to prevent the spread of the epidemic.Since then, the Black Death has repeatedly attacked Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries;However, the mortality and severity gradually decreased.
Some people believe that the Black Death has seriously hit the traditional Europeansocial structure, weakened feudal and church forces, indirectly contributed to the laterThe RenaissanceAndReformation。
Medieval Knights
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Terminology
knight
Knights, or samurai, were cavalry with formal military training in the European Middle Ages, and later evolved into a kind ofHonorary title, used to indicate asocial stratum。In this stage of chaos, the king and the nobility both need some arms with overwhelming advantages in war, so they will carefully cultivate some young people to become knights.The identity of knights is not inherited, and its essence is also different from that of nobles. In addition to being able to obtain fiefs like nobles, knights must also serve in the lord's army and bring their own weapons and horses in the war.In chivalry literature, knights are often symbols of bravery and loyaltyChivalryAs a rule, it is the embodiment of heroes (not necessarily the case)ChivalryIt is similar to the Samurai system of Japan.
It takes 14 years to train a boy to become a knight.During this period, the trained boy would first follow the lord's wife as a servant and learn etiquette;Later, learn "Knight"Seven Arts”(Swimmingjavelin, fencing, horsemanship, hunting, chess, poetry), as well as working for the lord or responsible for training his knights.After becoming a knight, he should follow the "chivalrous spirit", such as serving the king or lord, protecting the church and women and children, fighting against the strong and supporting the weak, and fighting bravely.
In the medieval times, besides fighting for the lord or king, knights also had to participate in some competitive activities at some time of the year.These competitive activities have special names:
Two knights on horseback competeLance riding(lance,The saddle used for martial arts competition also has no rear bridge, which makes it easy for knights to fall off after being attacked. Sometimes one side will still fight with other weapons in the landing contest until one side dies, loses consciousness or surrenders. The one who surrenders or loses consciousness will become the prisoner of the winner, and the family must pay a ransom to redeem it.
More than two groups of knights conduct the above competitive activities, which is called "martial arts contest".
The first intention of these competitive activities was that the king would move the nobles to nearby surveillance and maintain the fighting quality of the knights.
Sealing process
To become a knight is the dream of every medieval boy. At the beginning, the awarding ceremony was simply to pat the right shoulder of the giver with a sword and give him a name. But as time passed, the process gradually became very difficult.The following is a process for a medieval boy to become a knight.
1. First, you should be born into a noble family in medieval Europe.At the age of seven, he will be sent to another knight's home as a page to learn various knights' etiquette.At the age of 14, he will become a squire, receive various trainings and learn "chivalrous spirit".
2. At the age of 21, he was ready to become a knight.Before being knighted, you should first clean yourself, and then put on white clothes and red robes: white clothes mean you are clean, and red robes mean you are ready to fight and get hurt at any time.
3. After getting dressed, you should fast for a day, hold a sword and pray to God in front of the shield. The prayer content includes asking God to forgive your sins, sanctify yourself, promise to protect the church and swear to "eliminate the strong and support the weak." At this time, any attendant who does not agree with the status of knighthood can break the shield, and the attendant must defend his shield with a sword.
4. Finally, it will be sent to the giver.The giver will level his sword and press it on his right shoulder. Sometimes there will be a kind of merciful sword without a sword tip to carry out this ritual and bless.In this way, the ceremony of being crowned was completed, and he became a knight formally.
Very rarely, attendants will also be canonized on the battlefield because of their heroic performance in the battle.
The influence of the church
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The influence of the church
field
influence
In the literature
Each monastery has a considerable number of booksCloisterChina and IsraelBenedictine ChurchIs the most.The mendicant recess also had a large collection of books, which were continuously copied and expanded.
In education
MonasteryOur school was the safest educational organization in that turbulent era, and there were responsible teachers, although not very high level.They developed the traditional seven arts education and created the early university.
adoptReligious musicAncient tunes were preserved, and new music theories and methods developed slowly but firmly.Architectural techniques are preserved, newarchitectural artAnd technology inReligious architectureIs reflected in.Painting emphasizing intense emotion and profound experienceSculpture artDeveloped.
Definition evolution
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14th century ItalyRenaissance humanismscholarPetrarchTravel around Europe to rediscover and publish classic Latin and Greek works, aiming at restoring the Latin language, art and culture that originated from Roman classics, and viewing history through classical culture, literature and art in terms of changes and events since the fall of Rome in 410AD.
Many modern negative ideas about the "Dark Age" came from the 17th and 18th centuriesenlightenment campaignInKant andVoltaireIn their works.
Medieval painting In the early 19th century,Romantic MovementThis has changed the negative one-sided trend towards "dark times".
In the second half of the 19th century after the Romantic Movement,archaeologyGreat progress has been made.
After the middle of the 20th century, in the literature of professional scholars in English speaking countries, the word "dark period" gradually disappeared.Charles Haskin wrote: "The continuity of history excludes the medieval andThe RenaissanceThere is a great possibility of difference between these two historical periods. Modern research shows that the Middle Ages were not so dark or stagnant as once thought;The Renaissance was not so bright, nor so sudden.Before the Italian Renaissance, there was a similar movement, even if it was not so popular.Therefore, the original "dark period of the Middle Ages" has been changed to refer specifically to the period from A.D. 410 (or 455) to A.D. 754 (or 800)European history。
