silk

[sī chóu]

Fabrics made of pure or interwoven silk or rayon

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Silk, a textile used for silk Or synthetic fiber, artificial fiber, staple, etc; A general term for fabrics made of pure or interwoven silk or rayon.^[1]

In ancient times, silk was silk (mainly mulberry silk, but also a small amount of silk Tussah silk And cassava silk) textile 。 In modern times, due to the expansion of textile materials, all textiles woven with artificial or natural filament fibers can be called generalized silk. The silk woven from pure mulberry silk is also called“ Real silk ”。

Silk originates from mulberry trees and is made from silk. After exquisite weaving, it can be made into silks and satins, which shows the glory of being expensive. More than 5000 years ago, Chinese nation Ancestors invented mulberry planting, silkworm rearing, silk reeling and silk weaving Yellow Emperor 、 Yao 、 Shun The world governs by hanging down the clothes. More than 2000 years ago, silk opened the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West, and witnessed the oriental civilization moving towards the world. As a great invention in ancient China, silk has become an important symbol of Chinese civilization.^[43]

Silk is a special product of China. The ancient Chinese working people invented and produced silk products on a large scale, which opened the first large-scale trade exchange between the East and the West in world history“ the Silk Road ”。 Since the Western Han Dynasty, Chinese silk has been shipped to foreign countries in large quantities, becoming a world famous product. At that time, the road from China to the West was called the Silk Road by Europe, and China was also called the“ Silk Country ”。^[1]

Chinese name: silk
Foreign name: silk

country of origin: China
Product classification: textile

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Raw material characteristics

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Natural fiber

silk

The natural fiber contained in silk is mainly silk fiber, which is a continuous long fiber formed by solidifying the silk liquid secreted by mature silkworm when cocooning, also known as Natural silk It is one of the earliest animal fibers used by humans, including mulberry silk 、 Tussah silk 、 Castor silk , cassava silk, etc.

Silk fiber is the only natural filament fiber that has been used in practice. It is made from silkworm slime. Silk fiber can be divided into many types according to the silkworm's eating habits, including mulberry silk fiber formed by eating mulberry leaves, tussah silk fiber formed by eating tussah leaves, and other wild silk fibers formed by eating cassava leaves, mulberry leaves and castor leaves. Silkworm silk fiber and tussah silk fiber can retain the form of filament fiber into the filament yarn formed by bunching, and other several wild silk fibers can only be transformed into short fibers for textile processing. In the filament yarn formed by bunching of mulberry silk fiber and tussah silk fiber, the filament yarn of mulberry silk fiber is the most important, accounting for the majority of natural filament yarn.

Silk structure

When the silkworm spins silk, it spins out two pieces of silk at the same time, but after solidification, they will combine to form a cocoon silk. The cross section of cocoon silk is similar glasses 。 Each cocoon silk contains two silk fibers bonded together by sericin, which are called fibroin, that is, silk fibers without glue. It has a cross sectional feature close to triangle, but its shape and cross-sectional area are not uniform.

Silk fibroin, also known as fibroin fiber, is the silk fiber finally used.

Sericin is wrapped around the silk fibroin fiber, and its existence will have an important impact on the use, processing and product style of the fiber.

The sericin content on each cocoon silk is uneven. The silk that starts to spit out has a low sericin content, and the silk that ends with the highest sericin content. The silk fiber has a relatively complete fibril structure, which can fully display the excellent quality of natural fiber.

chemical composition

Chemical composition of silk

Silkworm Protein fibre (Fibroin; シルククンパク), also known as: Silk fibroin 。 It is a kind of high molecular compound containing nitrogen, and the single group of its macromolecule is α amino acid. The general structural formula of α amino acid is RCH (NH two ）COOH, because its amino group is located in the immediate vicinity carboxyl or carboxylic acid On the α carbon atom, so it is called α amino acid. It can be seen from the general structural formula of silk fibroin that the side groups connected on different peptide groups of the whole macromolecular chain are different, which is an important feature of natural protein fibers.

There are 18 kinds of amino acids that make up silk fibroin. The content of silk fibroin is about 70% - 80% of silk, and glycine (gly), alanine (ala) and serine (ser) account for more than 80% of the total composition.

Modification

Silk fibroin Although it has many excellent use properties, silk fibroin molecules contain a certain amount of hydroxyphenol group and other structures, which are easy to absorb ultraviolet light and denature. Under ultraviolet light irradiation, amino acid composition is cracked, and whiteness decreases significantly. With the increase of irradiation time, the yellowing degree of silk fibroin also increases, especially in the presence of water, yellowing is more serious^[2-3] 。 The mechanical properties and thermal properties are also greatly reduced^[4] , which has a great impact on its performance, and silk fibroin is difficult to dye and easy to fade. In order to improve the defect, it must be modified. The modification can use biological genetic methods to improve silkworm varieties, or chemical and physical methods to improve, usually Chemical modification and high polymer Blending Two methods.^[5]

man-made fiber

Few modern industrial silks are 100% silk products, mainly Natural fiber 、 man-made fiber 、 cellulose A combination of.

Man made fiber refers to the non natural fiber made by physical and chemical methods, which is divided into renewable fiber and chemical fiber. Regenerated fibers are made of some natural macromolecular compounds or their derivatives as raw materials, which are dissolved into textile solutions, and then spun into fibrous materials; Chemical fibers are synthetic fibers made from petroleum, natural gas, coal and agricultural by-products. Artificial fibers are added to silk mainly to make silk resistant to shrinkage, moth eaten and easier to preserve.

Man made fiber has a history of only 100 years. Before that, human beings relied on cotton, wool, silk, hemp and other natural fibers for textile, clothing and other production fields. Since the 1950s, various synthetic fibers have come out successively, with large quantities and low prices, which has greatly enriched the total output and use range of textile fibers and become competitors of natural fibers. The raw material of synthetic fiber is oil, but the earth's oil resources will be exhausted 30 to 50 years later. With the continuous progress of social economy and the change of consumption awareness, in order to cope with the oil crisis and adapt to the global trend of environmental protection, the fiber industry is gradually moving closer to the development and use of natural fibers. All kinds of new fibers, such as natural colored cotton, bamboo fiber, Lyocell fiber, PLA fiber, soybean protein fiber, silkworm pupa protein fiber, etc., have the characteristics of natural fibers, which not only have excellent performance but also are environmentally friendly.

Silk characteristics

advantage

First: comfortable to wear. Silk is composed of protein fiber, which has good biocompatibility with human body. In addition, its surface is smooth, and its friction stimulation coefficient to human body is the lowest among all kinds of fibers, only 7.4%.

Second: good moisture absorption and desorption. Silk protein The fiber is enriched with many amino groups (- CONH) and amino groups (- NH two ）Such hydrophilic groups can absorb or disperse water in the air and maintain a certain amount of water because of their porosity and easy diffusion of water molecules. Under normal temperature, it can help the skin to retain a certain amount of moisture, so as not to make the skin too dry; Wearing it in summer can quickly dissipate sweat and heat from human body, making people feel extremely cool.

Silk not only has good heat dissipation performance, but also has good warmth retention. Its thermal insulation benefits from the porous fiber structure. There are many tiny fibers in the silk fiber, and these tiny fibers are composed of even smaller fibers. Therefore, more than 38% of the seemingly solid silk is actually hollow, and there is a lot of air in these gaps, which prevents the heat emission and makes the silk have good warmth retention.

Third: Sound absorption, dust absorption and flame retardancy. Silk fabric has a high void ratio, so it has good sound absorption and air absorption, so it can be used for interior decoration in addition to making clothes. As silk has moisture absorption, moisture release, moisture retention, air absorption and porosity, it can also adjust indoor temperature and humidity, and absorb harmful gases, dust and microorganisms. In addition, silk fibers have low thermal denaturation and are relatively heat-resistant. When heated to 100 ℃, only 5-8% of them become brittle, while most synthetic fibers have 4-5 times more thermal denaturation than silk. The combustion temperature of silk is 300-400 ℃, which is a refractory fiber, while the combustion temperature of synthetic fiber is 200-260 ℃, which is flammable and fusible. Therefore, using silk fiber as the raw material for interior decoration can not only play the role of sound absorption, dust absorption, heat preservation, but also play the role of flame retardant.

Fourth: UV resistance. Silk protein The tryptophan and tyrosine in the silk can absorb ultraviolet light, so the silk has a good anti ultraviolet function. Ultraviolet rays are very harmful to human skin. Of course, after absorbing ultraviolet rays, the silk will undergo chemical changes, which will make the silk fabric yellow under the sunlight.

Fifth: health care. The health care function of silk fiber is irreplaceable. It contains 18 kinds of amino acids necessary for human body, which is almost the same as the amino acids contained in human skin, so it is also known as the "second skin" of human beings. Wearing silk clothes can not only prevent ultraviolet radiation, prevent harmful gas invasion, and resist harmful bacteria, but also enhance the vitality of skin cells on the body surface, promote the metabolism of skin cells, and have a good auxiliary treatment effect on some skin diseases.

shortcoming

Easy to wrinkle, easy to absorb, not strong enough, fading fast.^[6-7]

Silk weaving process

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Filature

The original silk reeling method is to dip the cocoon in hot soup, draw silk by hand, and wind it on the silk basket to become the raw material for weaving silk. Basins and baskets are primitive silk reeling utensils. One cocoon can extract about 1000 meters of cocoon silk, and several cocoon silk can be merged into raw silk.^[8]

Silk reeling is a major process in silk making. According to the product specifications, the cocoon filaments of several cooked cocoons are separated and combined into raw silk or Tussah silk 。 There are many methods of silk reeling, which can be divided into floating, semi heavy and heavy reeling according to the ups and downs of cocoons during silk reeling. The ups and downs of cocoons are mainly determined by Cocoon cooking The amount of water absorption in the back cocoon cavity. According to the different types of silk reeling machinery, it can be divided into Vertical reeling and Automatic reeling Two. According to the different sensing types of automatic silk reeling machines, they can be divided into two types: fixed grain sensing reeling and fixed fiber sensing reeling. The process of extracting cocoons from silk is generally called silk reeling.

Weaving

After processing, raw silk is divided into warp and weft, and interweaved with each other according to certain organization rules to form a silk fabric, which is a weaving process. The production process of all kinds of silk fabrics is different, which can be roughly divided into two categories: raw weaving, that is, the warp and weft yarns are first made into fabrics without refining and dyeing, which are called preformed fabrics, and then the preformed fabrics are refined and dyed into finished products. This kind of production mode has low cost and short process, and is the main mode used in silk weaving production. Mature weaving means that warp and weft silk is dyed before weaving, and the woven blank silk can be finished without further refining and dyeing. This method is mostly used in the production of high-grade silk fabrics, such as brocade, taffeta, etc. Before weaving, it is also necessary to make preparations, such as the impregnation to soften sericin, the doubling and twisting of silk that can improve the product performance, as well as warping and weft winding. At the same time, due to the strong hygroscopicity of silk, moisture-proof work should be done well. Automatic looms used in silk weaving production mainly include water jet looms for producing synthetic filament fabrics and rapier looms for producing multi-color weft jacquard fabrics.^[8]

dyeing and finishing

Dyeing and finishing refers to the processing of textile materials (fibers, yarns and fabrics) chemical treatment The main technological process is also commonly known as printing and dyeing 。 Dyeing and finishing do spinning 、 Woven Or knitting production together, forming the whole process of textile production. The quality of dyeing and finishing has an important impact on the use value of textiles. The process mainly includes refining, bleaching, dyeing, printing and finishing of raw silk and fabrics.^[8]

refine

Silk is composed of two monofilaments, the main body of which is silk protein, and the outer layer is wrapped with sericin. Most pigments, oils, waxes and inorganic salts are found in sericin. These impurities have a great impact on the printing and dyeing effect, so they must be removed before dyeing. In long-term practice, people have learned that sericin is easily dissolved in hot water under the action of chemical agents or enzymes. Taking advantage of sericin's weakness, they put raw silk or raw silk into a mixed solution containing soap (or synthetic detergent) and soda ash (sodium carbonate) for heating, and sericin is hydrolyzed after heating. Through such refining, sericin is removed to preserve silk protein, and impurities such as pigment, grease and wax are removed to obtain white silk products. Degumming is also called refining, and the raw silk after degumming is called cooked silk. The degumming degree of raw silk shall be determined according to the production requirements.^[8]

bleach

Silk bleaching

The degummed silk fiber shall be bleached to remove the natural pigment. Otherwise, the color of finished products will change due to the existence of natural pigments when dyeing light colors. Silk can be bleached by the oxidation or reduction of various bleaching agents. The process of bleaching silk with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of catalyst has been reported. Thiourea dioxide is a reduced bleaching agent with low BOD and COD values, so it can be used as a non-toxic bleaching agent with low pollution. However, compared with sodium hydrosulfite, sodium hydrosulfite is still widely used despite its serious pollution. However, the application of TDU is limited due to its high price.^[9]

dyeing

The pure white silk fabric enters the dyeing stage after being refined. Dyeing is the process of making dyes react with silkworm and raw silk to dye raw silk with various colors. As silk is a protein fiber and is not alkali resistant, dyeing should be carried out in acid or near neutral dyeing solution. The main dyes used for silk fabrics are acid dyes, reactive dyes, direct dyes and vat dyes. The color dyed with acid dyes is bright, and the washing fastness of the product can be improved by treating it with cationic fixing agent after dyeing. Reactive dyes have good washing fastness on silk. The dyeing method of fabrics varies with the variety of fabrics. For example, crepe and yarn fabrics are dyed with rope or overflow jet dyeing, while spun, silk and satin fabrics are dyed with open hanging or jigging.^[8]

printing

After all, a color is monotonous. In addition to dyeing, people also use printing technology to make silk colorful. Printing refers to the process of printing dyes on fabrics according to the designed patterns and colors. The commonly used printing processes include direct printing, discharge printing and anti dyeing. Direct printing refers to the printing of color paste on silk fabrics directly through screen printing plate. It is one of the basic printing methods of the. Discharge printing, also known as engraving plate printing, is a process of discharge with engraving agent. Before printing and dyeing, silk fabrics are dyed with acid dyes and reactive dyes with azo structure, and then engraving (discharge) paste made of engraving agent containing destructive pigment is printed on colored silk fabrics according to the pattern. After steaming, the ground color of the printing paste will appear white, which is called "engraving white".^[8]

Anti dye printing is to print silk fabrics with "anti white" paste or "color proof" paste according to patterns, and then dye them after drying. Since there is "anti white" paste or anti dye agent in "color anti white" paste at the pattern part, it will not be dyed, while the rest part will be fully colored.

arrangement

After scouring, dyeing and printing, silk fabrics can be finished finally. The finishing process mainly solves the problems of moisture, creases, uneven door widths, etc. left by the previous processes, highlights the soft characteristics of silk fabric itself and increases its wearability, mainly using mechanical finishing and chemical finishing. Mechanical finishing includes stenting and weft finishing, steam ironing and calendering; Chemical finishing is mainly to add chemicals, such as softener, antistatic agent, fire retardant, sand washing agent composed of soda ash and trisodium phosphate, to achieve the effect of wrinkle prevention, shrink prevention, softness and compactness. The processed fabrics are not only more suitable for wearing, but also expand the consumption field of silk.^[8]

Historical evolution

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Initial development

In ancient legends, Yellow Emperor 's wife Lei Zu Invention of "sericulture and silk production"^[10-11] 。

According to the findings of archaeology, experts speculated that Neolithic In the middle period, China began to raise silkworms, take silk and weave silk. It was in Shanxi Province in 1926 that cocoons were really used Xiaxian County Xiyin Village Half of the cocoon found. According to archaeologists Li Ji And Liu Suile, an entomologist, concluded that it was silkworm cocoon. The cocoon shell is about 1.36 cm long and 1.04 cm wide. A part of the cocoon was cut off with a sharp blade. Xiyin Village is located in the Yangshao period (about 5600-6000 years ago), which provides material objects for people to study the origin of silk^[12] 。

During the investigation and excavation of Shicun Site, another site in Xiaxian County, archeologists found four stone silkworm pupae carved in early Yangshao 6000 years ago, one of which was light brown in shape and size like a date stone, with a stripe pattern carved on it with sharp objects. Duan Tianjing, a professor of Jilin University, said that this not only provided an example for the half cocoon excavated in Xiyin Village, but also about 500 years earlier. Duan Tianjing said, "We judge that the image of the stone carving silkworm chrysalis in the early Yangshao period of the Neolithic Age found this time should be earlier than Xiyin Culture It takes a lot of effort to carve such an image from granite. From this point of view, we can see that people at that time loved and admired sericulture. At that time, people may have been engaged in sericulture handicrafts. "^[43]

Cocoon Shell Unearthed in Xiyin Village

In Henan Province Xingyang It is said that the remains of silk dating back to about 5500 years were found in four Weng coffins at Wanggou Site.^[13]

stay Hemudu site People in China have found textile tools, from which it can be inferred that the use of silk is not later than Liangzhu Culture^[14] 。 The most influential statement is the archaeological discovery made by Chinese scientists in 1958, 5300 years ago dawenkou culture Silk fabrics of the period.

Silk fabric technology was monopolized by China for hundreds of years. Because its knitting technology was a complex process at that time, and because of its unique feel and luster, people paid much attention to silk fabrics, so silk fabrics became the main international trade materials in the world before the industrial revolution. The earliest silk fabrics could only be used by emperors, but the rapid development of the silk industry made the silk culture constantly penetrate into the Chinese culture geographically and socially. And it has become an essential high-grade article for Chinese businessmen in foreign trade.

At first, China strictly controlled the spread of technology in silk weaving and sericulture, and prohibited their flow to foreign countries. However, North Korea, with the assistance of Chinese immigrants, has successfully achieved a breakthrough in sericulture technology in the previous 200 years. In addition, the Hetian River Basin in the Western Regions (500 years to 300 years ago) and India (300 years ago) have successfully achieved silkworm rearing. however Imperium Romanum It took about 550 years to obtain silkworm eggs and develop silkworm breeding technology.

Shang and Zhou Dynasties

Shang · Bundled Silk

Agriculture developed greatly in the Shang Dynasty, and sericulture also formed a certain scale. Although the number of silk fabrics of the Shang Dynasty found in archaeology is limited, jacquard silk fabrics have appeared, which indicates that the weaving technology at that time has reached a considerable level.

Western Zhou Dynasty During the period, the rulers had strict organization and management of industrial production, and silk production technology was more advanced than that of the Shang Dynasty.

Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period The period was a transitional period from slavery to feudalism in Chinese history, during which great changes took place in productive forces and socio-economic patterns. Sericulture and silk industry has also been paid attention to, and the development of agriculture and mulberry has become an important national policy to enrich the country and strengthen the people.

During the Warring States Period, farmers who combined agriculture with handicraft industry became the basic production unit of society, and handicraft industry became an important part of agricultural economy. The specialized division of labor in silk production is more obvious, and some technologies have been passed down from generation to generation, reaching a fairly high level^[15] 。 Silk can be produced in almost all places, and there are also rich varieties of silk, which are mainly divided into three categories: silk, silk and brocade. The emergence of brocade is an important milestone in the history of Chinese silk. It combines the excellent properties of silk with fine arts. It is not only a noble cloth, but also a work of art. It has greatly improved the cultural connotation and historical value of silk products and has a far-reaching impact. At this time, Chinese silk was also introduced into India, and Kautilya, an Indian politician and philosopher, wrote the Political Affairs Theory (also translated as "the art of governing the country and securing the state")^[16] There is the word "cinapatta" in the book, which means "bundles of Chinese silk". In addition, it can also be seen from many Sanskrit words that the ancient Indian people had a much more accurate understanding of silk than the Greeks and Romans. They knew that silk was made from worms and silk was made from cocoons.^[17]

Qin and Han Dynasties

Western Han Dynasty, Pure Yarn Zen Clothes

The Qin and Han dynasties were the period when China's feudal society was initially consolidated and developed. The unification of Qin and the establishment of the centralized system laid the foundation for the prosperity of the Han Dynasty. In the early Han Dynasty, the policy of "cultivating with the people" promoted the rapid development of economy. The large-scale official silk industry has been established, and its products mainly meet the needs of the court and officials; The private silk weaving industry has also developed greatly, and some workshops have formed their own product characteristics and popularity. Silk production areas have developed compared with the Shang and Zhou dynasties. During the Western Han Dynasty, the production center of silk was in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River Shu brocade It has become a national famous silk product.^[15]

During the Qin and Han Dynasties, the silk weaving industry not only developed greatly, but also with the large-scale expansion of China's foreign influence in the Han Dynasty, the trade and export of silk reached an unprecedented prosperity. Martial Emperor During the period, the Huns were attacked in the north and controlled the Hexi Corridor 。 diplomat famed for exploits in Inner Asia Two missions to the Western Regions, connecting the Central Plains and the Western Regions eurasia Road. The promotion of trade has further developed the economic and cultural exchanges between the Central Plains and the border areas, China and its eastern and western neighbors, thus forming the famous“ the Silk Road ”。 This road starts from Chang'an Departure Gansu 、 Xinjiang Go straight west, pass by Central Asia 、 west Asia , final arrival Europe 。 In the third year of Yuanshuo (126 BC) Martial Emperor Under the policy of "going west", Chinese silk and silk were continuously transported to Central Asia, West Asia and Europe through the Silk Road. A large number of Han Dynasty silk fabrics unearthed along the Silk Road were material evidence of the trade prosperity at that time. China's silk production technology also spread to Central Asia during this period.

Wei Jin Period

Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties During the period, wars continued, the country was divided for a long time, and the regime changed frequently. Severe social unrest, complex political pattern and extensive international exchanges have made silk production difficult to develop, but rich in connotation and diverse in appearance. During this period, the north was still the main production area of silk products. The silk industry in Chengdu, Sichuan, was always developed three countries With the relevant policies of the Tang Dynasty, the development of the silk industry has made a new progress, and further developed through the operation of the Southern Dynasty, laying the foundation for the rise of the silk industry in Jiangnan after the middle of the Tang Dynasty.

The long-term wars in the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties caused serious damage to the economy of the Yellow River basin Sui dynasty The focus of China's sericulture and silk industry has shifted to the Yangtze River basin.

Sui and Tang Dynasties

Tang Dynasty Famen Temple Silk Fabric

The Sui and Tang dynasties were the peak of the development of China's feudal society. In general, the country was strong, the economy was developed, and the business was prosperous, especially the cultural openness, which showed the grace, inclusiveness and inclusiveness of this era. Silk industry has also reached a climax of development on this social basis. There were three important silk producing areas at that time: first Yellow River Basin , with Hebei and Henan as the main bodies; Second Sichuan Bashu area, the west of Jiannan Road and Shannan Road can be included in this area; The third is under the Yangtze River Southeast China And basically form a situation of three powers standing in a confrontation. An Shi Rebellion Later, the importance of the Jiangnan region was greatly enhanced. In addition, the development of silk in the northwest region is second to none in remote areas, and shows strong local characteristics.

The Tang Dynasty was the heyday of silk production, which reached an unprecedented level in terms of output, quality and variety. The production organization of silk is divided into court handicraft, rural sideline and independent handicraft, and the scale is greatly expanded compared with the previous generation. At the same time, the foreign trade of silk has also been greatly developed. Not only has the number of "Silk Road" channels increased to three, but also the frequency of trade has been unprecedentedly high. Silk production and trade made great contributions to the prosperity of the Tang Dynasty.

The silk trade in the Tang Dynasty was very developed, and the overland silk trade routes were more circuitous to the north. The Maritime Silk Road also emerged during this period. Silk products were transported to the Korean Peninsula, Japan and Southeast Asia, India and even spread to Europe by Arab traders through the East China Sea Line and the South China Sea Line, respectively. The prosperity of silk trade led to the spread of silk technology. By the 7th century, silk production had spread from Japan in the east, Europe in the west, and India in the southwest, basically laying the pattern of silk production areas in the future.^[15]

Song Dynasty

Southern Song Dynasty, brown Luo printed pleated skirt

During the Song Dynasty, with the progress of sericulture technology, Chinese silk had a brief glory. Not only the variety of designs and colors of silk has increased significantly, but also the Song brocade, silk and decorative gold Textile There are three new varieties with characteristics, and great breakthroughs have been made in the summary and promotion of sericulture production technology.

Silk production in the Northern Song Dynasty took the Yellow River basin, Jiangnan region and Sichuan region as the important production areas, and the production focus in the middle and late period has shifted to Jiangnan region, but the northern region still has advantages in high-end silk production. In the Southern Song Dynasty, silk production areas were mainly concentrated in the Yangtze River basin, and silk production in the southern region of the Yangtze River was in absolute advantage. Zhejiang has become a veritable "silk city". Liao Dynasty began to develop sericulture and silk production after seizing the Sixteen Prefectures of Yanyun. Although the silk industry in the areas ruled by the Jin Dynasty was damaged, it also maintained a certain scale.^[15]

The official silk production workshops in the Song Dynasty had a considerable scale. Under the supervision of the Shaofu in the capital, there were Lingjin Academy, Dyeing Academy, Wensi Academy and Wenxiu Academy. At the same time, there were official weaving institutions in important silk production areas. In Tokyo, there were more than 400 looms in the Lingjin Yard during the reign of Emperor Zhenzong, and the annual output of Runzhou Silk Weaving Co., Ltd. was million. Wuzhou, the emerging center of silk weaving industry, is known as "the world of clothes and quilts". Taihu Lake Basin "cocoon thin mountain stands, and the sound of static carts is heard from the roof"^[18] 。 The folk silk weaving industry in the Song Dynasty was very developed. In addition to being a traditional handicraft industry in the countryside, a large number of silk weaving workshops emerged in the cities, and the strength of the folk weaving households continued to grow. In terms of foreign trade, due to the blocking of the overland Silk Road, the maritime silk trade has made great progress. China's raw silk and silk are transported to all parts of the world through the maritime Silk Road.

Yuan Dynasty

Before unifying China, the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty adjusted their economic policies to protect productive forces and means of production. The government has established an agricultural management organization, the Department of Agriculture, to guide and supervise agricultural production; The first official agricultural book in history《 Summary of Nongsang 》It is also distributed nationwide to promote advanced production technology; We will encourage land reclamation and open up farmland so that agricultural production and the social economy can recover and develop rapidly. Western astronomy, calendar, arithmetic and medicine were introduced into China, and Chinese compass, gunpowder and printing were also introduced abroad first. The political situation of Sino foreign cultural exchanges and unification has promoted the improvement of silk technology. The northern silk industry in the lower reaches of the Yellow River has rebounded, the division of labor in silk production has been meticulous, and the weaving technology has been improved; In the south of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the position of silk production center was further consolidated and upgraded.^[19]

After the middle of the Yuan Dynasty, the pattern of production areas changed greatly. Silk production in the north declined, and Jiangnan became more important. On the one hand, the cold climate makes it unsuitable for sericulture production in the north, and on the other hand, cotton planting also makes sericulture tend to concentrate. The huge official weaving system was an important feature of silk production in the Yuan Dynasty, which had a certain inhibitory effect on folk silk production.^[15]

Ming Dynasty

Ming Dynasty · Machine account

Due to the germination and development of capitalism in the Ming Dynasty, the production and trade of silk also changed greatly: the commercialization trend of silk production became increasingly obvious, and the overseas trade of silk developed rapidly. The Suhu area in the south of the Yangtze River has become the most important silk producing area, with a number of typical professional silk towns developed, and official weaving has become increasingly mature. At this time, Chinese silk has reached the most active period.

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, the policy of concentrating on developing reclamation, building water conservancy and revitalizing agriculture changed the identity of handicraft slaves in the Yuan Dynasty and greatly liberated the labor productivity. In addition to taking turns to work regularly, hereditary handicraftsmen can make handicrafts themselves and sell them on the market most of the time, while reducing business taxes. The recovery of agriculture, handicrafts and commerce has promoted the progress and development of sericulture and silk production technology. In the Ming Dynasty, many works of high academic value were published, such as Li Shizhen Of《 Compendium of Materia Medica 》Mulberry varieties have been scientifically classified; Xu Guangqi Of《 Complete Book of Agricultural Administration 》"Sericulture" in, has a comprehensive discussion on sericulture production; Song Yingxing Of《 Tiangong Kaiwu 》It was the most important work on silk production at that time.^[19]

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, a series of measures were taken to emphasize agriculture and frugality. The scope of sericulture and silk production areas was reduced, but regional intensive production centered in the south of the Yangtze River was formed. Among them, Suzhou, Hangzhou, Songshan, Jiaxing and Huzhou were the five major silk cities. After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, the social atmosphere gradually became extravagant. Under the conditions of commodity economy and specialized division of labor, the silk industry and commerce in the south of the Yangtze River gained great prosperity.^[15]

The official weaving industry in the Ming Dynasty was large in scale. In addition to setting up central dyeing and weaving organizations in Nanjing and Beijing, local weaving and dyeing bureaus were also set up in Suzhou and Hangzhou, the silk producing areas, and more than 20 places in the country to supply the pieces needed by the court and the government every year. There are two modes of production: "local weaving" and "collar weaving". The local weaving is a shift corvee system, and the collar weaving is a folk household. The personal dependence of craftsmen is somewhat relaxed than that of the Yuan Dynasty.

Silk products flowed into neighboring countries and regions in the form of imperial rewards. After the mid Ming Dynasty, the government set up "Shibosi" in Guangzhou, Quanzhou, Ningbo and other places, and Chinese raw silk and silk were sold in large quantities to Japan and Europe via Macao.^[19]

Qing Dynasty

In the early Qing Dynasty, the silk industry suffered heavy losses in the war. Encouragement measures were adopted during the Kangxi period, so that silk production developed rapidly and further concentrated in the Taihu Lake area and the Pearl River Delta. In particular, the Jiangnan region became the center of the national silk industry in terms of scale and level.^[15]

The official weaving system of the Qing Dynasty abolished the system of the Ming Dynasty, and the raw materials were mainly purchased. The overall scale was smaller than that of the Ming Dynasty. The important ones were Jiangning Weaving Bureau, Suzhou Weaving Bureau, and Hangzhou Weaving Bureau, collectively known as "Jiangnan Three Weaving", which were responsible for supplying all kinds of silk fabrics needed by the court and the government. The production scale of the folk silk weaving industry has expanded, and the professional and regional division of labor has become more obvious. A number of prosperous professional silk towns have emerged, with a wide range of products and a prosperous domestic market. In terms of foreign trade, the sea ban was strictly enforced, which strengthened the restrictions on foreign trade and implemented one port trade. Nevertheless, China's raw silk exports to Japan and raw silk and silk fabrics exports to European countries have reached a considerable scale.

In the late Qing Dynasty, China's silk industry fell into a very sad situation under the double attack of exorbitant taxes and foreign dumping.^[15]

the Republic of China era

Sun Yat-sen The Industrial Plan set out the development goals of 750000 tons of cocoons, 71000 tons of silk and 1125 million meters of silk according to the needs of 450 million people in China at that time; And on《 People's livelihood doctrine 》It puts forward the idea of "improving the silk industry to increase production", "studying the spinning method in detail and improving the variety, quality and color of silk respectively", so that "China's silk industry can gradually progress and compete with foreign countries. Mr. Sun Yat sen's warning that "if China's mulberry leaves, silkworm eggs and silk quality are not improved, it is still the old and conservative law, and China's silk industry is not only a failure, I'm afraid it will be eliminated by nature, and be completely eliminated" became the consensus of the national silk industry at that time. Many people of insight called for "saving the country through industry", and called for the establishment of a silk technology school to develop silk production and increase silk exports. At that time, some industrialists responded positively, and the government also gave some support. The production technology of planting mulberry, sericulture, silk reeling and weaving was improved. Silk has become an important export material of the country, accounting for more than 20% of the country's total export value at that time. In the 26th year of the Republic of China (1937), the Anti Japanese War began. Japanese imperialism invaded and occupied the main silk production areas in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Shandong, Guangdong and other provinces in China, plundered silk resources, and damaged Chinese silk production. In the 34th year of the Republic of China (1945), shortly after the victory of the Anti Japanese War Kuomintang Communist Civil War By the 38th year of the Republic of China (1949), the production and export of cocoon and silk were at the lowest point in the Republic of China, and the whole silk industry was on the verge of extinction.^[19]

Modern development

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Domestic development

In the decade from 1980 to 1990, China raw silk The output increased from 36000 tons to 57000 tons, Silk fabric The output of; The consumption of silk products has also increased from 400 million meters to 1.22 billion meters. The export of raw silk accounts for more than 80% of the world's raw silk trade, and the silk and satin account for about 50%, regaining the leading position in the world silk market. The silk industry has become the country's pillar industry for foreign exchange earning. A relatively complete silk industry system has been established. Silk products are sold to more than 100 countries and regions.^[20]

With the continuous progress of the technological level of China's silk industry, the pace of scientific and technological innovation has also been accelerated, especially computers, e-commerce platforms and modern information processing have been fully utilized in all directions. The most typical example is that the popularity of computers has made the silk reeling process completely eliminate the vertical reeling machine that has been used for a hundred years, thus greatly improving the level of automatic silk reeling in the silk industry. Computer monitoring and auxiliary means can fully realize the business model of small batch and multi variety enterprises. Electromechanical integration has become the main feature of international textile machinery development. Almost all jacquard machines and big circle machines have been installed with electronic jacquard devices.

The reliability of silk production equipment is the crux of the gap between domestic equipment and foreign advanced level. The sales volume of domestic textile equipment in China is only about 10000 sets. However, it is conservatively estimated that the annual demand for textile equipment in China's textile industry is as high as 20000 to 30000 sets.

In the field of raw material application, China has made remarkable achievements in scientific research, such as decoding the mystery of silkworm genome and successfully cultivating natural colored cocoons; Overcome the technical difficulties of automatic silk reeling and vacuum infiltration cocoon cooking; Fully grasp the ultrastructure of silk fiber; Further research on the tensile properties of silk formed by forced traction and obtain results; Sericin and silk fibroin extracted from silk by-products were popularized and applied; We have successfully developed new differentiated textile materials of pure silk such as Zha/Sang elastic silk and bulk elastic silk; Preparation of functional silk fibroin nanofibers by electronic spinning; New environment-friendly dyes, chemicals, auxiliaries and supporting processes for silk have come out one after another.

In terms of fabric structure, phased achievements have been made in tackling silk difficulties such as wrinkle resistance, shrink resistance and fade resistance, which have been applied to heavy silk, silk georgette, silk imitation chemical fiber silk, computer embroidery velvet, etc., doubling the added value of products.

Silk textile technology compounding has also made continuous progress, mainly reflected in: chemical fiber compounding technology and processing technology; Blending and compounding of natural fibers; Composite between natural fiber and chemical fiber; The combination of various functions; Composite of various fabrics, such as double-layer bonding composite, inlay composite, sandwich composite, etc.

China's silk industry has both advantages and gaps. Chinese silk export enterprises mainly compete for the international market share with the increase of quantity, which has exacerbated the chaos of domestic silk market prices to a certain extent. As the export price has declined year after year, the export price of silk and its silks and satins is only 50-60% of that ten years ago. In fact, China's silk and silk exports have long been trapped in a strange circle of rising quantity and falling price. Although China's silk industry has excellent favorable conditions in terms of raw material production and supply, there has never been a brand with high visibility and considerable market share in the world. The objective evaluation of China's silk in the world is still stuck in China's raw silk. Only after Italian post-processing or French finishing can it be ranked among high-end fashion clothes.

For this reason, since 2002, the China Silk Association has begun to focus on the approval and registration of high-grade silk signs. On this basis, in 2004, the domestic silk industry listed five brands of pure silk products as Chinese famous brands, and granted the first batch of 17 enterprises the right to use high-end silk signs. The implementation and promotion of high-end silk marks indicate that the products of Chinese silk enterprises are entering a new period of sublimation from cheap and low-grade products to high-end industrial chain fields.

In 2010, the national mulberry garden area reached 12.031 million mu, the cocoon output was 649000 tons, and the raw silk output was 162000 tons, up 3.7%, 5.4% and 30.4% respectively from 2005. During the "Twelfth Five Year Plan" period, China's annual average cocoon output stabilized at about 650000 tons, the total output of silk and silk cotton products reached more than 120000 tons, the sericulture economic income exceeded 20 billion yuan, the total output value of the silk industry reached more than 200 billion yuan, and the export of real silk commodities remained at more than 3.5 billion dollars. By 2015, the energy consumption per unit added value in cocoon drying and silk printing and dyeing will be reduced by more than 20% compared with the end of the 11th Five Year Plan, the water consumption per unit added value in the silk industry will be reduced by more than 30%, the silk reeling enterprises will achieve zero sewage discharge, and the comprehensive utilization rate of cocoon and silk solid waste will be increased to more than 80%.^[21]

International development

1、 Industrial adjustment changes silk production pattern

1. Gradual transfer of cocoon silk production

In terms of total amount, China ， India ， Brazil ， Vietnam? ， Thailand Such as the rapid development of developing countries, and Italy ， France ， Japan ， the republic of korea And other developed countries have declined significantly.^[22]

2. Silk production tends to be multipolar

There are 65 countries and regions that produce silk in the world, of which nearly 40 have a certain scale, and about 10 have a certain position in the world silk production. As the largest Chinese silk industry in the world, the annual output of cocoons reached 440000 tons, and the highest year reached 700000 tons, accounting for about 70% of the world's total output. India's cocoon and silk production has developed rapidly and has replaced Japan as the world's second largest silk producer. Thailand, Vietnam, Brazil, Malaysia Other countries also attach great importance to investment in the silk industry and have taken a series of measures to promote the development of their own silk industry.^[22]

2、 Scientific and technological innovation guides the trend of silk consumption

1. Intensive production technology

Japanese researchers have developed aseptic silk production technology, developed low-cost artificial feed with bean curd residue as the main component, breaking the pattern of sericulture production based on seasons for thousands of years, and the cocoons produced have the advantages of good whiteness, high silk yield, and direct reeling. At the same time, the "cloned silkworm" produced with advanced technology, gene transfer technology, new protein materials, artificial jet spinning silk and so on are emerging in endlessly around the world, which will surely replace the traditional cocoon production mode.^[22]

In terms of industrial production, Japan, Germany, Italy, South Korea and other developed countries make use of their comprehensive scientific and technological advantages to constantly innovate in the deep processing technology of silk products and take a leading position in the international market. The United States, Switzerland, Spain and others have strong strength in the development of filament fiber raw materials and silk technology and equipment, leading the development trend of new silk technology in the 21st century. In many countries, in addition to retaining some traditional processes, production processes have been evolving towards technology intensive, automated, high-speed and electronic.

2. Diversification of silk products

The development trend of international silk new technology is that the fields of clothing industry, decoration, military, cosmetic, medical and other fields go hand in hand. Japan, Italy, the United States and other advanced silk producing countries have made major breakthroughs in research on comprehensive utilization of silk. For example, the application and development of silk in the fields of food, cosmetics, medicine and so on is in a leading position for the very fine and extra coarse size silkworm varieties. Japan also uses cocoons and silk to develop automobile decorative materials, contact lenses, artificial skin, etc. At the same time, real silk, rayon and synthetic fiber are diversified, and various raw materials are blended and coated, making the types of fibers more diversified.

3. Fashion of wearing performance

Silk products are closely related to fashion trends in terms of fabric, texture, pattern and style. The newly developed elastic fiber, TenceI fiber, real silk invisible printing, silk art, etc. in the silk science and technology industry represent the fashion, fashion and environmental protection trend of the silk industry. For example, the knitwear blended with silk and cashmere have become popular in the international market, and the blended silk cashmere has greatly improved the function of knitted fashion, becoming a fashion favorite favored by customers in Western Europe and North America. The technical research and development of new functional silk fabrics has made a major breakthrough, conforming to the development trend of diversification, compounding and fashion of silk products in the international market, and promoting the upgrading of silk products.^[22]

3、 Squeeze the market and intensify the competition of silk trade

With the increase of the world population, the adjustment of the silk industry structure and the innovation of science and technology, as well as the deepening of people's understanding of the natural products of real silk, silk consumption will continue to grow steadily. However, with the global economic integration and China's entry into WTO, the competition in the silk market will become increasingly fierce.

1. Silk trade barriers restrict fair competition

From the perspective of the whole textile industry, there are relatively few trade barriers to silk exports, and the export environment is relatively loose, but it has also been restricted by quotas, tariffs and other trade barriers. At the same time, due to the impact of textile trade barriers, the export of cross products interwoven with silk, cotton, hemp and other textile materials has been greatly restricted. The European Union and the United States are the main markets for Chinese silk. In order to resist a large number of low-cost Chinese silk and silk clothing imports and avoid the impact on the silk circulation industry, the European Union and the United States began to impose quota restrictions on Chinese silk and clothing imports in 1994. Since 1998, Europe and the United States have cancelled the quota of some Chinese silk products, but still implemented certain restrictions. In order to protect its own interests, Japan has imposed the most restrictions on the import of Chinese silk products. With the popularity of silk hemp, silk cotton and other blended fabrics and clothing in the international market, the impact of textile quota restrictions on the expansion of silk clothing products and market space is more and more obvious.^[22]

2. Countries have crowded into the international silk market

Silk consumption spreads all over the world. China and Brazil are the main export suppliers of cocoons and raw silk in the world silk market. China, Japan, South Korea, India and Thailand are the main export suppliers of silk fabrics in the world. China, Japan and South Korea are also the main export suppliers of silk clothing in the world silk market. There is almost no silk industry in France, Italy, Germany, Switzerland and Hong Kong, China. It mainly imports raw silk, silk and other raw materials for domestic and foreign consumption after deep processing. The United States, Australia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia and some countries in North America directly import silk products for domestic consumption. With the recovery and growth of the world economy, countries have been targeting the global silk market and trying to expand the export of their silk products. The rise and development of India, Vietnam and other silk producing countries will further occupy the international market share. South Korea, Italy, Germany and other countries use their technological advantages to import cocoon and silk raw materials from China, Japan, Brazil, and then export them to developed countries such as the United States after processing, becoming the most powerful competitors of China's silk clothing exports.^[22]

Industry prospect

Analysis on the living characteristics of silk consumer groups

China's silk industry has developed rapidly, with silk output ranking first in the world, among which cocoon silk and silk and satin can dominate the production and price trend in the international market. The industry is mainly distributed in Jiangsu and Zhejiang 、 Guangdong and Guangxi 、 Shandong 、 Anhui 、 Sichuan The synergy between industries in different regions needs to be improved. During the "Eleventh Five Year Plan" period, the scale of output value and sales of China's silk industry have achieved substantial growth. By accelerating structural adjustment and industrial upgrading, we have stabilized the traditional export market and actively opened up the domestic market. The connection between production and marketing has continued to improve, and the quality and efficiency of industry operations have significantly improved, with steady development and good momentum.^[23]

The increasing demand for healthy, functional and personalized silk products shows that the intrinsic advantages of silk fibers are gradually being recognized by modern people. The silk domestic market with a population of 1.3 billion has huge development potential.

Although China's silk trade volume accounted for 80% of the world's total, the proportion of its exports fell from 3.4% in 1985 to 0.19% in 2011, which shows that China is a big silk country but not necessarily a strong silk country. China is the world's largest producer and exporter of silk. Its raw silk output accounts for more than 70% of the world's total output, and its export volume accounts for more than 80% of the world's total trade volume. Improving the scientific and technological content of silk products, developing new silk products and meeting the consumption demand of emerging consumers are the inevitable trend of future international silk consumption growth.

The development momentum of China's cocoon and silk industry is good. In 2010, the national mulberry garden area reached 12.031 million mu, the cocoon output was 649000 tons, and the raw silk output was 152000 tons, up 3.7%, 5.4%, and 30.4% respectively from 2005.^[23]

Silk Culture

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overview

Silk is a symbol of ancient Chinese culture and has made indelible contributions to the development of human civilization in the world. Chinese silk is famous for its excellent quality, exquisite designs and rich cultural connotation. Thousands of years ago, silk came from Chang'an along the Silk Road When it spread to Europe, it brought not only beautiful clothes and ornaments, but also the ancient and splendid civilization of the East. Since then, silk has almost become the communicator and symbol of the oriental civilization.

Four Famous Embroideries

	Suzhou embroidery It is the general name of embroidery products in Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, including Jiangsu area. The birthplace of Suzhou embroidery is in Wuxian County, Suzhou, bordering Taihu Lake. With a mild climate and rich in silk, local women have a traditional habit of being good at embroidery. The superior geographical environment and colorful brocades create favorable conditions for the development of Suzhou embroidery. In the long history of development, Suzhou embroidery has formed a local style with beautiful patterns, harmonious colors, bright lines, lively stitches and fine embroidery, known as the "Oriental Pearl".^[24]
	Shu embroidery Also called“ Sichuan embroidery ”, is the general name of Sichuan embroidery products with Chengdu as the center. Shu embroidery has a long history, according to the Jin Dynasty Constant Qu 《 Huayang National Records 》According to the records in, the embroidery in Shu was very famous at that time, and Shu embroidery and Shu brocade were regarded as famous products in Shu. Shu embroidery takes soft satin and colored silk as the main raw materials, with a wide variety of stitches, giving full play to the specialty of hand embroidery, and forming a strong local style. The themes of Shu embroidery are mostly flowers and birds, animals, landscapes, insects and fish, and people. In addition to pure ornamental embroidery screens, there are also quilt covers, pillow cases, clothes, shoes, cushions, tablecloths, scarves, handkerchiefs, and painted screens. There are both large strip screens and small pocket pieces, which are exquisite works of art with both ornamental and practical value.^[25]
	hunan embroidery The general name of embroidery products centered on Changsha, Hunan. Xiang embroidery was made in the first year of the Republic of China (1912) and the 22nd year of the Republic of China (1933) respectively Italy Turin Expo and Panama At the World Expo, Hunan embroidery won the best prize and the first prize respectively, and was praised as a super embroidery abroad. Xiang Embroidery is characterized by the use of velvet thread (no twist yarn) for embroidery. In fact, the velvet thread is treated in solution to prevent fuzzing. This kind of embroidery is locally called "wool fine embroidery". Xiang embroidery is also mostly based on traditional Chinese paintings, with vivid and realistic shapes and bold and unconstrained styles. It once had a good reputation of "embroidering peanut fragrance, embroidering birds can listen to the sound, embroidering tigers can run, and embroidering people can convey the spirit". The color matching characteristics of Hunan embroidery humanistic paintings are mainly dark light gray and black and white, simple and elegant as ink painting; Xiang embroidery daily necessities have bright colors and strong decorative patterns.^[26]
	Guangdong embroidery The general name of Guangdong embroidery art, including Guangzhou "Guangxiu" centered on Chaozhou It is the representative of two major schools of "Chaoxiu". Previously, most of the embroidery workers were men from Guangzhou and Chaozhou, which was rare in the world. Guangdong embroidery began in the Tang Dynasty, formed its characteristics in the middle and late Ming Dynasty, and was exported by Guangzhou Port in the Qing Dynasty. Exquisite craftsmanship, strong decorative composition, rich and bright colors, smooth and bright embroidery, clear culture, free and easy velvet strips. In Du Yang Miscellaneous Chapters written by Su E of the Tang Dynasty, it was described as follows: "In the first year of Yongzhen's reign, Nanhai Gongqi Meiniang was fourteen years old, and she was extremely skillful. She could embroider seven volumes of the Fahua Sutra on a foot of silk. The size of the characters was not more than a grain of millet, but clearly defined, as fine as hair. There were no gaps in its title and sentence. She was better at making flying immortals. She was covered with silk and divided into three strands, dyed into five colors...".^[27]

Three famous brocades

	cloud-pattern brocade Refers to Nanjing It is a kind of jacquard silk weaving handicraft with fine weaving, exquisite patterns and colorful brocade patterns. It combines the achievements of silk weaving techniques of past dynasties and valuable experience of other silk weaving techniques, reaching the peak of silk weaving techniques. The main feature of cloud brocade is the different colors of flowers. When viewed from different angles, the colors of flowers on the embroidery are different^[28] 。 The history of cloud brocade can be traced back to the Song Dynasty. It got its name because of its bright color and cloud like appearance. It was popular in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties were all royal tributes, and it was called the last milestone in the history of Chinese ancient brocade technology. In 2006, Yunjin was included in the first batch of intangible cultural heritage lists in China, and in September 2009, it was included in the United Nations Intangible Cultural Heritage Representative List of Humanity. Inheritance unit is Nanjing Brocade Research Institute 。
	Shu brocade Original reference Sichuan The colorful brocade produced later became the general name of brocade produced in various places with similar weaving methods. Shu brocade is mostly woven with dyed ripe silk threads, and the warp threads are patterned, and colored stripes or colored stripes are used to add flowers. It is woven with a combination of geometric pattern organization and decoration. The patterns of Shu brocade are widely used, such as myths and legends, historical stories, auspicious inscriptions, landscape characters, flowers, birds, animals, etc^[28] 。 Chengdu "Jinguan City" got its name from the Qin and Han Dynasties, and almost all the brocades from the Qin and Han Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties were Shu brocade. yes the Silk Road It is also one of the main trading products of Japan's national treasure level traditional handicraft Kyoto Western array weaving Predecessor. In 2006, Shu brocade weaving techniques were approved by the State Council to be included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists. Inheritance unit is Chengdu Shu Brocade Embroidery Museum 。
	Song brocade Originated in the late Song Dynasty, it is mainly produced in Suzhou 。 The texture is delicate and firm; The patterns are symmetrical, rigorous and varied, rich and smooth; The use of color is bright but not fiery, complex but not chaotic; The production process is characterized by simultaneous development of warp and weft. Song brocade is very practical, soft and firm, with beautiful patterns, durable, and can be washed repeatedly. It has a wide range of applications^[28] 。 Song brocade was developed on the basis of Tang Dynasty Shu brocade. In 2006, it was included in the first batch of national intangible cultural heritage lists. Inherited by Suzhou Silk Museum 。

Regal dress

Twelve chapter pattern

China is a country of etiquette and ancient clothing. The development of Chinese silk, to a certain extent, is also a microcosm of the splendid ritual system. It can be said that ancient Chinese clothing is one of the tools of the etiquette system of "distinguishing between high and low, distinguished from high and low", which is feudal Patriarchal clan system The materialization of.

The clothes worn by ancient emperors have special marks, which need a set of formal clothing system to regulate and must be strictly implemented. From the shape and color of clothes to the length and material of silk thread, all are related to etiquette. Therefore, the imperial costume is the criterion and cornerstone of the whole costume system.

"Standard" exclusive imperial costumes appear in Western Zhou Dynasty 。 The rulers at that time had strict regulations on the clothing of all kinds of people, and was included“ Zhou Rites ”Category of. The hierarchy is very obvious, and no arrogance is allowed. At that time, the developed textile, printing and dyeing production technology provided a solid material basis for the Zhou Dynasty to establish a sound clothing system. Zhou Gongdan, who assisted King Cheng, formulated a complete set of steps to consolidate the power of the Western Zhou Dynasty Patriarchal hierarchy In order to express the difference between the upper and lower clothes of officials in the imperial court, ministers going out, empresses and Yan residence, etc., and to make detailed regulations on the form, texture, color, pattern, and accessories of clothing crowns, it became an important part of the etiquette of the Zhou Dynasty.

According to the Book of Changes, "Tianxuan (sky blue) and Dihuang (earth color)" were the clothes worn by the Emperor of Zhou when he was sacrificing to heaven. The black clothes were black, and the red and yellow colors were also included. The black clothes were the tops of black fabrics, and the clothes were the bottoms of red and yellow. The coat is painted with six chapters of the sun, moon, stars, mountains, dragons, and Chinese insects, similar to modern hand-painted clothing, which is directly painted on the cloth by painters with ink pigments; The lower garment is embroidered, with six chapters of Zongyi, Zao, Huo, Fenmi, 黼黼黼黼, Fu, and a total of twelve chapters of pattern patterns.

Before the Zhou Dynasty, the imperial costumes were embroidered with the twelve chapter patterns mentioned above. In the Zhou Dynasty, because of the patterns of the sun, the moon and the stars on the banners, the costumes were no longer repeated, and the twelve chapters were changed into nine chapters. The decoration order is headed by the dragon, and the dragon, mountain, Chinese, insect, fire and Zongyi are hand-painted; Algae, pink rice, bamboo, and fu are rusted. In the following dynasties, the traditional pattern of the twelve chapter pattern was basically continued, and the twelve chapter pattern gradually became the exclusive pattern of Chinese emperors, which was the symbol of ancient Chinese monarchy. The dragon and phoenix in the twelve chapters are also gradually used by emperors. The dragon becomes the symbol of the Son of Heaven, and the phoenix is the representative of the supreme female.

Supplementary service for officials

Official complement

stay Ancient Chinese Costumes In the system, silk and Feudal hierarchy The close relationship between civil and military officials is the supplementary service. Tonic clothing It is a kind of official dress decorated with grade badge, or patched robe, which is different from other official dresses. The main difference is that the front, chest and back of the clothes are each decorated with a patch with the same form, content and meaning. Therefore, if you look at the patterns on the tonic, you can know its official rank and taste, which is somewhat similar to the rank of today's officers.

The origin of tonic can be traced back to the Tang Dynasty, which is similar to Wu Zetian It depends on the garment pattern. 《 Taiping Imperial Survey 》Volume 692 cites the Book of the Tang Dynasty: "The Empress Wu came out with a purple robe with Luo Ming's lapel and back, which was given to civil and military officials. Each of the robes had its own barbs... The Prime Minister was decorated with a wind pond, Shangshu It is decorated with geese, and the left and right guard generals are decorated with unicorns, Left and right martial guards Decorate it with a tiger. "

The stone carvings of the Yuan Dynasty unearthed from the Yangqun Temple in Inner Mongolia have flower patterns on them. At the same time, many Yuan Dynasty fabrics in the form of square patches have indeed been found in some Yuan Dynasty tombs. However, these clothes did not appear as patchwork clothes, and these square patchwork clothes were mostly in the form of flowers. They were not used as a symbol of official rank at that time.

The mending clothes that really represent official positions were finalized in the Ming Dynasty. According to the Ming History · Yu Fu Zhi, Hong Wu In the 24th year (1391), it was stipulated that officials should wear large collar gowns, with a square patch on their chest and back. Civil officials embroidered birds to show civilization, and military officials embroidered animals to show authority.

According to the official supplements unearthed in the Ming Dynasty and handed down from generation to generation, the production methods include brocade, embroidery and Tapestry silk Three. In the early days, the official complement was large and well made. The civil complement used two birds to fly together, while the military officer used a single animal, standing or squatting. In the Qing Dynasty, civil servants only used a single standing bird as their complement, and each grade was slightly different.

Value significance

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China is the hometown of silk. Silk is one of the important features of Chinese civilization, and has many connections with Chinese etiquette system, culture and art, local customs, science and technology, etc. Emperors used silk to show their authority, and officials used silk to mark their grades; Literati wrote poems chanting silk, and painters splashed ink on silk made of silk; The common people offered sacrifices to various silkworm gods to pray for a high yield of silk, while the imperial court issued a decree to exhort the silkworm industry and evaluate the achievements of local officials. Two of the four great inventions are directly related to silk. The original meaning of "paper" is the deposit of velvet in the process of making silk floss. The invention of printing is directly related to the letterpress printing on silk, Mawangdui Tombs of the Han Dynasty The printed silk fabrics unearthed have been multicolored overprinted in a large area, nearly a thousand years earlier than the Tang Dynasty woodblock prints. Therefore, it can be said that the relief printing on silk is the ancestor of block printing in future generations. In addition, the development of the Maritime Silk Road has also directly promoted the practice and improvement of the compass.^[29]

Silk is not only a simple and expensive clothing material, but also has an important monetary function for a long time in history. For China, "silk" is not only a commodity, but also a currency itself, which can be used not only to pay soldiers' salaries, but also to pay for the purchase of horses and other commodities. China uses silk to buy animal husbandry products from grassland tribes, while grassland people sell and transport these silks to the west along the Silk Road. It was in this process that silk realized the transformation from currency to commodity, which also explained why Roman and Byzantine gold coins were often found at the eastern end of the "Silk Road", while Chinese copper coins were rarely unearthed in the West, because silk itself was the currency of the Silk Road.^[30]

1. Promoted the development of the textile industry

The local silk culture reacts on the local textile industry, making it carry out a series of innovations and reforms on the original basis, thus improving labor productivity, creating new fabric types, and further enriching the silk culture.

The contribution of Chinese silk to the world first lies in the spread of Chinese silk technology with the spread of silk. Chinese silk technology was first introduced to Central Asia《 Records of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty 》There is a story about the silk princess who introduced silkworm eggs into Qusadan. The spread of silkworm eggs from Central Asia to Europe took place during the reign of Justinian, when a Persian monk took the silkworm eggs to Rome hidden in a walking stick. In this way, China's silkworm silk technology spread to Europe.^[31]

In addition to sericulture technology, silk reeling and silk weaving jacquard technology also had a significant impact on western textile technology. Joseph Needham In his History of Science and Technology in China, he listed the scientific and technological achievements that China has contributed to the world starting with 26 English letters, including: F - Jacquard and horizontal looms; G -- Reeling machine, spinning machine and doubling machine. Europe's absorption of these technologies has greatly improved its own textile technology, which has led to many mechanical innovations. It was on this basis that the textile industrial revolution in modern Europe could rise. The principle of silk jacquard, that is, the process of storing information and converting it into a jacquard program by matching the pattern pattern with a heald and a step, or by compiling a pattern book, contains profound mathematical ideas. After being introduced into Europe, it not only had a great impact on the development of European silk weaving technology, but also had a great impact on the development of modern telegraph communication technology and even computer principles.

Foreign silk culture plays a more important role in the development and innovation of the local textile industry. After Chinese silk entered European countries, monarchs of various countries established and developed their own silk weaving industry. In this process, the spread of silk culture is not a simple copy, but constantly improved and enriched. For example, Western European silk drawing and weaving workers integrated their rich imagination and color feelings into the creativity of the Chinese nation's ancestors, making textile technology increasingly sophisticated and scientific, and becoming the leader of modern industry. It is precisely because of this highly creative combination that has greatly enriched and promoted the development of textile technology. After the formation of foreign silk culture, it was fed back to China, which played an important role in promoting the development and progress of China's textile industry, especially the modern machine textile technology, which had a huge impact on the development of China's textile industry.^[32]

2. Promote the development of Chinese language and literature

Silk culture has played a great role in the emergence and development of Chinese characters, which is reflected in the emergence and application of Chinese characters related to mulberry, silkworm, silk, and a large number of "bi" characters. 《 Analytical Dictionary of Characters 》In, there are 9353 characters of seal characters, including 248 characters of "bi" part, accounting for 3% of the total number of seal characters. There are also a lot of words related to these words in Chinese, such as silkworm, mulberry hemp, mulberry catalpa, silkworm seed, silk reeling, spinning, the Silk Road, silk painting, jade, wealth, etc^[33] 。 Most of these words are closely related to silk production.

In addition, there are many idioms and allusions related to the silk culture, such as tying oneself in a cocoon, using tricks up one's sleeve, walking in splendor at night, returning home in splendor, etc^[34] 。 In addition, a large number of literary works also describe sericulture and silk to express feelings or reflect social reality, such as Li Bai Of《 Moshangsang 》， Du Fu Of《 White silk line 》Etc.^[35]

3. Promoted the derivation of folk culture

The silk culture is full of folk customs. The worship of the silkworm god by Chinese people has a history of thousands of years. The myths and legends about the silkworm god are endless for thousands of years, and there are many silkworm gods. There are no less than 10 authentic silkworm gods in various places^[33] 。 Many songs, proverbs, dialects and folk sayings related to the silk culture are the activation of history and have accumulated strong folk customs. Many customs of the age, society and life etiquette are related to the silk culture.^[36]

4. Promote the development of arts and crafts

Silk culture goes deep into all aspects of cultural life, and has a great impact on people's aesthetic taste, which in turn affects other arts, and even promotes the emergence of some new art categories. The style of silk patterns in the Pre Qin period was simple, generous and varied. These patterns interacted with pottery, metalware, lacquer and other patterns of the same generation, and were adapted to the level of weaving technology at that time. Colored lacquerware of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty can be seen in a variety of intermediate colors and multiple colors, which echo the color characteristics of silk fabrics at that time. The origin of "twelve chapter pattern" is closely related to silk hand painting and embroidery. The "twelve chapter pattern" later evolved into a special pattern on the emperor's dragon robe, and became an important part of the ancient clothing culture.

UNESCO World Heritage List: Chang'an Tianshan Corridor Road Network

The invention of Chinese calligraphy, painting and rice paper has a direct relationship with the ancient silk "elevator silk" and "silk cloth". In fact, the invention of paper was influenced by silk. The original meaning of paper is that the silk scraps accumulated during the washing process of silk accumulate into a thin layer, called paper. Inspired by this, people used fiber instead of silk fiber to make paper, which became a great invention of China^[37] 。 Another important invention, printing, also originated from the silk industry. Through textual research, the relief printing of ancient Chinese silk is the predecessor of block printing, and many parts of the traditional printing process are directly from printing technology^[38] 。 The invention of paper and printing greatly promoted the development of calligraphy, painting and other arts.

5. Promoted the exchange of world culture

Silk, as one of the great inventions in ancient China the Silk Road They have contributed a lot to the world civilization. At the same time, foreign cultures have also entered China through the Silk Road, making the local culture more colorful^[39] 。 Japan has repeatedly accepted Chinese immigrants into its own life or sent envoys to China to learn silk weaving technology. After Chinese immigrants, a large number of Japanese students and learned monks accompanied the mission to Japan, they played an important role in the political, economic and cultural reform and development of Japan. Especially in the Sui and Tang dynasties, the Sui and Tang cultures had a strong impact on Japan's society and culture. It has formed an unprecedented "Tang like culture" in Japan, which has lasted for more than 200 years^[37] 。 After the Japanese culture as a feedback entered China, it broadened people's spiritual vision. Many cultures have also become the theme of poetry and songs. Some silks are designed with foreign gods praying for good luck or legends, and absorbed by Chinese craftsmen, enriching the cultural interest of Chinese people. In addition, silk, as the "messenger of peace" of all countries, has played a key role in the diplomacy of all countries. All countries use silk trade or exchange of silk gifts as a breakthrough to strengthen ties between countries, maintain peaceful and stable international relations, and provide good conditions and environment for the progress and development of world civilization.^[32]

On June 22, 2014, the eastern section of the overland Silk Road jointly declared by China, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan“ The Silk Road: the road network of Chang'an Tianshan Corridor ”Successfully declared as World Cultural Heritage And become the first successful project applying for World Heritage through transnational cooperation.^[40-41]

Silk classification

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Fourteen major categories

according to Fabric weave , warp and weft combination, processing technology and shape of silk surface are divided into 14 categories. Except for yarn, silk and velvet, all other categories are based on local organization, regardless of flower and ground organization. Each kind of silk surface can be plain (scouring, bleaching, dyeing) or flowered (weaving, printing).


Spinning : Plain weave, adopting raw weaving or half color weaving process, generally no twisting or weak twisting in warp and weft, the silk surface is relatively flat, thin and tough.	Crepe : plain weave or other fabric with warp or weft reinforced twist, or both warp and weft reinforced twist, showing obvious crepe and elastic fabric.

satin : Application Satin weave , the silk surface is smooth and bright.	Damask : A fabric with twill weave or modified twill weave and obvious oblique grain on the silk surface.

Yarn: A fabric wholly or partially woven with yarn, made by twisting warp yarns A and B every other weft.	Luo: A fabric with all or part of Luo weave, which is twisted by one or more odd weft threads every other or more than three warp threads, is called Luo.

Fleece: All fabrics with velvet weave and velvet or pile loops on the silk surface.	Brocade: Yarn dyed jacquard fabric with satin and twill weave and exquisite and colorful patterns.

Basket: Light and thin perforated fabric with plain weave or yarn collection.	What's more: It uses various weaves and thick warp and weft silk threads, with rich texture and wool like fabrics.

Ge: It is a kind of fabric with plain, twill and its changing weaves. It is thin in warp and weft, fine in warp and thick in weft, thick in texture, and has a horizontal shuttle pattern on the silk surface.	Thu: plain weave, filament warp, cotton or other yarn It is a weft fabric with thick texture.

Silk: used for plain weave, fine, smooth and crisp fabric.	Silk: A fabric with plain weave or variable weave and tightly interlaced warp and weft.

Thirty five sub categories

Mainly divided according to the performance of silk surface:

1、 Crepe de chine : It is a fabric with plain weave, untwisted warp, two left and two right strong twisted weft, and uniform crepe effect on the silk surface.

2、 Georg : It is a fabric with plain weave, two left and two right strong twisted yarns for warp and weft, balanced and thin texture, and yarn eye and crepe effect on the silk surface.

3、 Green crepe The warp is untwisted, and the weft is blue crepe yarn (20/22Dx3 plus S twist 1600T/m, then 20/22D1, plus Z twist 1600T/m), which is a fine wrinkle fabric.

4. Shunyu: a fabric with untwisted warp and unidirectional strongly twisted weft silk, with straight wrinkles on the silk surface.

5. Taff: It is a fine and crisp cooked fabric with plain weave, warp and weft first scouring and dyeing.

6、 Electric spinning : mulberry silk (tussah silk) raw woven plain fabric.

7. Thin spinning: plain weave fabric with a weight of 6m/m or less per square meter of silk woven raw with mulberry silk.

8. Silk spinning: plain weave fabric with silk in both warp and weft.

9. Cotton silk: plain woven fabric with silk drawing in both warp and weft.

Double uterine silk

10. Shuanggong: A fabric made of Shuanggong silk in whole or in part.

11、 knot : All or part of the fabrics with lumps and slub silk, which are lumps.

12. Star stripes: applying Crepe weave Fabric.

13. Rib: A fabric with one or both sides in a frivolous stripe.

14. Fancy: A fabric that is wholly or partially made of fancy twist or color matching threads.

15. Stripe: A fabric with a straight stripe pattern on the silk surface.

16. Checker: A fabric with a checkered pattern on the silk surface.

17. Cool penetration: the hollow fabric with yarn like eyes is formed by using false yarn.

18. Yarn dyed fabric: Fabric made entirely or partially of yarn dyed silk.

19. Double side: fabric with triple weave and same type twill or satin weave on both front and back.

20. Concave and convex: A fabric with concave and convex patterns.

21. Mountain shape; Fabric with obvious mountain shape or zigzag flower shape by mountain shape or zigzag twill weave.

22. Flower: Jacquard fabric.

23. Trimming: the trimmed jacquard fabric.

24. Light: light Viscose Pure human silk fabric made of silk or semi gloss cuprammonia silk.

25. Matte: pure human silk fabrics with matte viscose silk or matte cuprammonia silk.

26. The flash fabric is pure woven or interwoven with bright ultra light profiled synthetic filament, which shows the flash effect.

27. Brightness: Pure woven or interwoven fabrics made of gold and silver coins (aluminum leather), showing the effect of brightness.

28. Raw: It is made of raw silk and is not refined.

29. Special dyeing: warp or weft yarns are dyed by tie dyeing and other special dyeing processes, which are dichromatic and tie dyed fabrics.

30. Warp printing: fabric printed by silk and then woven.

31. Brushed: fabric that has been brushed.

32. Standing pile: fabric finished with standing pile.

33. Kimono: the door width is less than 40 cm, or the whole width is woven with cut seams of less than 40 cm each for processing kimono special articles.

34. Large stripe: plain weave fabric with tussah large stripe silk for warp and weft.

35. Kesi: special silk fabrics made of plain weave or other weaves through warp breaking (weft returning).^[42]

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