synonymEastern Roman Empire(East Roman Empire) generally refers to the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire (English: Byzantine Empire; 395-1453), also translated as Byzantine Empire, namely Eastern Roman Empire.The Byzantine Empire has gone through 12 dynasties and 93 emperors, lasting more than 1000 years.[19]
On January 17, 395,Imperium RomanumemperorTheodosius I (346-395) died.On his deathbed, he inherited the eastern and western parts of the empire with his two sons.Among them, the Eastern Roman Empire lasted for a thousand years, during which time it was generally called the "Imperial Rome".The Eastern Roman Empire was originally the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which worshiped Greek culture. After splitting from the Western Roman Empire, it gradually developed into aGreek culture、GreekAnd afterThe Orthodox ChurchFor the foundation of nation building,GreeceIt is the core component of the Byzantine Empire, shaping the cultural identity of modern Greece, and spreading the Greek tradition to the orthodox world.620,HeracliusThe emperor replaced Greek for the first timeLatin, became the official language of the empire, making the East Roman Empire different from ancient Rome andWestern Roman EmpireCountry.
In 1204, Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, was onceThe Fourth CrusadeIt was captured until it was recovered in 1261.In 1453, Mohammed II of the Ottoman Turkish Empire captured Constantinople, and the last emperor Constantine XI was killed in battle. Male members of the Baleolo family were slaughtered by Turks, and the Byzantine Empire was finally destroyed.[20-21]
The official name of the Byzantine Empire is "Rome", or“Imperium Romanum”。In order to compete with those who also claimed to be the Roman EmpireHoly Roman EmpireAfter the fall of the empire in 1453, Western Europeans called it the "Byzantine Empire".
In the 11 centuries from 330 to 1453, the "Byzantine Empire" never became the official or informal name of the country, and its subjects never called themselves "Byzantines" or the capital New Rome "Byzantine".Until the 17th century, the "Roman Empire" was the official name of this empire by western historians.In 1557,GermanyIn the Byzantine Historian's Manuscripts of Past Dynasties, the historian Heronius Wolff introduced the term "Byzantine Empire" in order to distinguish the classical Greek literature before the Roman era from the Greek literature of the Byzantine Empire in the Middle Ages.This name comes from the predecessor of its capital, Constantinople (Istanbul) - the ancient Greek colony of Byzantine City.
After the 17th centuryMontesquieuThe use of the term "etc." has gradually been widely used by Western European historians to distinguish (actually quite different) ancient timesImperium RomanumThe eastern half and the medieval, Hellenistic Byzantine Empire.
Fudang is the title of Byzantine Empire in Chinese medieval historical records.[1-2]In ancient times, it was also called Daqin or Haixi State.[3]According to different historical periods, this name sometimes refers to the country covered with tarpaulin (today'sSyria）Such as the eastern coast of the Mediterranean.[4]In the Song and Yuan Dynasties, it was also calledSeljuk TurkicRegnantAsia Minor。This name is in《Wei Shu·Gao Zongji and Xianzu Ji wrote "Pulan".[5-6]《Northern History·Biography of the Western Regions, "Voluni".[7]XuanzangBy《Records of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty·The works of Western countries attached to the National Constitution of Boras (Volume XI) are "breathtaking",[8]Daoshi《Fayuan Zhulin》Volume 39 and the cited "The Painting of the Tribute of the Liang Dynasty", which was written by Hui Chao《Wang ocheonchukguk jeon 》Make "Da Fu Lin", Du Huan《Jingxingji》、《Sui Shu》、《Old Tang Script》They are all called "Fuxuan".At the end of the 19th centuryMongolian PlateauThe 8th Century of DiscoveryTurkicwritingBilge Qaghan Purum is written in the stele.
《History of the Yuan Dynasty·Volume 134 Biography of Aixue has "Flynn" and "Flynn".Dai LiangOf《Jiuling Mountain House Collection》Volume Nine“farang ”。According to textual research, this "Fulin" is a transliteration of the word Farang, which is an Arab and Persian title for Europe, that is《Ming History》The Folangji is not the Fudang in the Northern Wei Dynasty, Sui and Tang Dynasties.
history
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Roman split
The division of the Roman Empire
The name of Byzantium comes from a sea sideancient GreekCity of immigrants, Roman emperor in 324constantine i Select this as the emperor's residence and change its name toConstantinople。[9]Constantinople（Istanbul）At connectionBlack Seareachaegean seaStrategic waterway betweenStrait of BosporusIt has a very advantageous geographical position to control the sea and land business arteries.
In the late third century, the Roman emperor Diocletian first introducedFour head systemTo manage the huge Roman Empire more effectively.He divided the whole empire into two parts and set up an emperor in Italy and Greece (calledAugustus）, each assisted by a deputy emperor (called Caesar).This split lasted until the 4th century.
Constantine the Great In 324, he re established himself as the only emperor of the whole empire.Constantine decided to establish a new capital. He chose Byzantium (now Istanbul).The capital was built in 330, and Constantine called it Nova Roma.But most people call it Constantinople.The new capital became the center of his administration.Constantine was also the first Christian emperor.Although this empire was not the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Constantine, Christianity was a characteristic of the Byzantine Empire, which was associated with beliefPolytheismThe dividing line of the Roman Empire.
Constantine the Great
Another dividing line is the Battle of Hadrian Fort in 378Battle of Adrianople ）。The defeat and the emperorValensThe death can be seen as the time when the ancient empire and the medieval empire separated.Theodosius I, the successor of Valens, divided the whole empire again.In 395, he gave these two parts to his two sonsAlcadiusAnd Honorius.Alcadius became ruler of the east, Honorius became ruler of the west, and his capital was Milan.From this time on, the eastern empire was generally called the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire.
Byzantine Empire basically avoidedWestern Roman EmpireThe difficulties encountered in the third and fourth centuries.There are many reasons.First of all, the urban culture here has been quite mature. Second, the invasion of the ethnic groups during the great migration mainly attracted the wealth of Rome.In the 5th century, the Western and Eastern Roman empires were conquered many times, and the Byzantine Empire could avoid suffering by making contributions at most.Theodosius II further strengthened the walls of Constantinople, making the city unbreakable by "barbarians".
ByzantineLeo I AndGothsThrough negotiations, he ended the threat of the Goths to the Eastern Empire, but he no longer planned to reconquer the territory of the Western Roman Empire.
In 395, the huge Roman Empire was invaded by various barbarians and divided into two parts for the convenience of jurisdiction. The eastern empire took Constantinople as its capital, so the eastern Roman Empire was also called the Byzantine Empire.In 476, the Western Roman Empire experiencedGermanicAfter repeated invasions by the tribes, they finally swallowed their last breath, and Byzantium became the only Roman empire - in fact, they always claimed to be pure Roman origin.[10]
Encyclopedia x Confusion: Illustrating the Division of East and West Rome
External expansion and internal treatment
Emperor Justinian
In the 6th century, the main enemy of East Rome was its traditional old enemy:Persian、SlavicandBogar。The theological debate, such as the debate on the oneness of Christ, is also an important topic of the empire.But the Eastern Empire did not forget its roots in the west.stayJustinian I And his outstanding generalBerisaliuThe Eastern Empire even recaptured some of the provinces it had lost in the west: most of Italy, North Africa and Spain.
Justinian's most outstanding political achievement is compilation《Justinian Code》。At the beginning of Justinian's accession to the throne, because he was busy with war and administrative affairs, and had no time to take into account the codification of the code, he set up a committee headed by the famous jurist Treponian to start sorting out and compiling Roman law.In 529, according to the decrees issued by the Roman emperors, it was compiled into 10 volumes of the Justinian Code.[11]Justinian rewrote the laws of ancient Rome and formulated《Civil Law》。It is worth noting that this code isLatinAt that time, Latin was regarded as an ancient language, and even many writers could not speak this language.[11]Justice Tribonius was once again designated as the person in charge of this work. He held a preparatory meeting according to Justinian's instructions, elected 16 jurists to form a new editorial board, and started work immediately.In 533, the Compilation of Justinian's Theory was completed.The Collection of Justinian Doctrines draws on the works of all jurists and expands the content to 50 volumes.[12]
532,st sophia (Its original name is Hagia Sophia, meaning sacred truth) began to work.This church will become the center of Byzantine religious life and Eastern Orthodox Church.[13]
In 554, the Byzantine EmpireBattle of KasilinumChina defeated the Frankish Kingdom, and the national strength reached its peak.
However, from 541 to 600, several large-scale plagues broke out along the Mediterranean coast.Southern ByzantineLevant、North AfricaRebellion broke out in the region.The old enemy of the Byzantine Empire——Sassanid Persian He made a comeback and became stronger and stronger, constantly carrying out military attacks against the Byzantine Empire.
Once feeble
After the death of Justinian I, he left his successor an empty treasury, and his successor could not cope with the new enemies that suddenly appeared on all the borders:LombardyOccupied northern Italy,SlavicOccupiedBalkan PeninsulaIn most areas,PersianInvasion and occupation of eastern provinces.Heraclius recaptured these eastern provinces, but just thenIslamismThe sudden appearance of the unified Arabs was unexpected to Heraclius.arabIt occupied almost all the southern provinces.In the 7th century, Syria and Egypt became part of the Arab Empire.
Greek fire
Although the Byzantine Empire lost a lot of land, it also benefited from it - it was no longer so mixed.Heraclius Hellenized the whole country. He did not use the title of Augustus, the emperor of ancient Rome, but Basileus.Greek is designated asofficial language。Religious differences between the Byzantine Empire and Western Europe can not be ignored.However, the Byzantine Empire also had some domestic differences. In its southern provinces, it generally used more Coptic Christianity, a branch of Christianity, than Coptic ChristianityThe Orthodox Church。After the loss of these provinces, the Middle East Orthodox Church became more powerful in the remaining provinces.Heraclius divided the country into several military regions to deal with foreign intrusion.The urbanization of other places except the capital was shrinking, and Constantinople became the largest city in the world at that time.[14]
arabHe tried to occupy Constantinople, but was defeated by the Byzantine navy.The Byzantine navy was very powerful at that time, and they had a mysterious firearm:Greek fire。After the initial Arab attack was repulsed, Byzantium began to recover.[14]
Hellenistic period
stayHeraclius I During the reign period (610-641), the Eastern Roman Empire completed the transformation from the classical Roman Empire to the Hellenisticthe medieval timessovereign state The process of transformation.He reformed the military system and administration, and implemented the military territory system, that is, to issue land to the soldiers who were born in farmers. As a condition of exchange, these people must perform their military duties.This practice consolidated the national defense and military strength of the Eastern Roman Empire.stayGreece、Thrace、MacedoniaIn other regions, Heraclio implemented the military region (Samaria) system, and established a series of administrative units under the command of military generals. The governors of the states were directly appointed by the emperor.With the establishment of the state of Saima, the empire consolidated itsSlavic、Hun andAwar peopleImpactBalkan PeninsulaThe rule of territory consolidated the territory of the empire.
At the end of the Heraclian dynasty, the empire experienced civil strife again. During the 22 years from 694 to 716, the emperor changed six times.By the early 8th century, the empire was on the verge of anarchy, and all of North Africa fell intoMuslimIn hand, the empire's territory is only left toConstantinopleThe city and its surrounding areas, eastern Thrace, several ports in Greece, southern Italy andsicily。In the first two places, thousands of refugees from the Balkans and GreeceSyria、Egypt、CarthageHundreds of thousands of Catholic refugees have escaped.As was the case a hundred years ago, sea power was the factor that saved the Eastern Roman Empire from extinction and brought it back to life at the beginning of the eighth century.The sea power has maintained what was left over from the political unification of the empire in the pastmediterranean seaBusiness activities on are not threatened.
Syrian bornLeo III (reigned from 717 to 741) was a great ruler who advocated reform and a famous general. In the first year of his rule, he repulsed the third siege of Constantinople by the Islamic caliphate army, which seriously damaged his vitality and dared not use military force against East Rome for several years.Moreover, its restructured navy has also curbed the growth of sea power in the Islamic world in the next four hundred years.Leo's successful resistance not only saved the Roman Empire in the East and the Catholic world in the West, but also saved the entire Western European civilization.
The biggest problem in the 8th century is thatIconoclasmThe debate.Leo III The order to ban holy images was greatly opposed, and riots broke out all over the country.Under the leadership of Queen Irene in 787Second Council of Nicaea It was decided that the holy image could be respected but not worshipped.The Isaurian dynasty perished at the end of the eighth century.
At the beginning of the 9th century, the iconography destruction movement reappeared and was stopped again in 843.These controversies led to the separation between theCatholicismandHoly Roman EmpireFailed to reunify.
golden age
Byzantine Empire Territory in Macedonian Dynasty
Macedonian dynasty The founding emperor ofBasil I Can be called the secondJustinianUnder the rule of him and other Macedonian emperors, the Byzantine Empire reached its peak in the 9th, 10th and early 11th centuries.During the centuries known as the "Golden Age", the Byzantine Empire resistedHoly SeeWithdraw the request of Faudios as the leader, and obtainAdriatic SeaAnd occupied part of Italy andBulgariaMost of.
1014Basil II (Butcher of Bulgaria) defeatedbulgarianIn 1018Bulgarian Empire 。At the same time, the Byzantine Empire also gained a new ally (and sometimes an enemy): the Russ people who established their kingdom with Kiev as the capital accepted the Eastern Orthodox faith and provided an important mercenary force for the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantine Empire in the 9-11th Century
But like its predecessor, the Roman Empire, Byzantium soon fell into trouble again.The main reason was that many aristocrats who occupied land at that time disrupted the military region system.If the Byzantine Empire only needs to deal with its old enemies, the Holy Roman Empire and the ArabAbbasid caliphate It may still be able to support, but the new enemy is not afraid of its reputation:the Norman Conquest Italy, andTurkicIt entered Asia Minor, the main source of troops of the Byzantine Empire.
In 1054,The Orthodox ChurchAndCatholicismA complete break.It started withthe pontiffLeo IX Insist on appointing oneSicilyThe born bishop presides over the Eastern Church.This led to the dissatisfaction of the whole eastern church.Mikhail Serulalius, the head of the universal pastor, was so angry that he ordered the closure of all western churches in China and the expulsion of their clergy.
At this time, the Pope sent Cardinal Humbert as a special envoy to meet with the Eastern Church. However, this negotiation finally broke down. HumbertHagia Sophia An excommunication order was issued, signed by the Pope.Shortly afterwards, the Universal Patriarch called a religious meeting and announced the expulsion of Roman delegates.The long-term opposition between the Eastern and Western churches has been completely split, and has not been bridged, which has had a profound impact on the history after that.
The last centuries of the Byzantine Empire began with Alexius I, the usurper, who introduced the feudal enfeoffment system of Western Europe, re established an army, effectively resisted the Turks, and recovered some eastern territories.He asked for help from the West to resist the Turks. This isThe First CrusadeOrigin of.CrusadersRecoverednicaea But soon the rescuers became enemy soldiers.Although Manuel I, the grandson of Alexius, was a friend of the Crusaders, neither side could forget that they had excommunicated each other's religious affiliation, and the Byzantine Empire's influence on Rome, which continuously passed through its territoryCatholicismThe Crusaders' intentions were highly doubtful.
Germans from the Holy Roman Empire in the 11th and 12th centuriessicilyAnd Italiannormans Constantly attacked the Byzantine Empire and plundered the provinces of the Byzantine Empire.The Italian city-state, which Alexius gave trade dictatorship, became the object of anti Western sentiment in particular.They became "Franks" and“Latino”On behalf of.VenetianIt was particularly repugnant - although Venetian ships were only the backbone of the Byzantine imperial fleet.meanwhile,TurkicStill a threat to the Byzantine Empire, they defeated Manuel in 1176.
stayThe Third CrusadeMiddle, Holy Roman EmperorFrederick IAttempt to conquer the Byzantine Empire, but the greatest damage to the Byzantine Empire isThe Fourth Crusade。The purpose of this expedition was to occupy Egypt, but the Venetians gained leadership.At their instigationCrusadersIn 1204, they conquered and sacked Constantinople, and established a short-term feudal kingdom（Latin Empire）。
The thoroughly weakened Byzantine Empire was torn apart:Empire of Nicaea The absolute monarchy of Epirus and Terabithon coexist.The former is composed ofPalaeologidsRule.
Rejuvenation
In 1261, they recovered Constantinople (Istanbul), defeated Epirus, and restored the empire.But their main focus was on Europe, and they forgot their enemies in Asia.The main reason why they survived was thatMuslimInternal division.
Ultimate doom
WhenOttoman EmpireAfter the establishment of the Byzantine Empire, almost all other places except some port cities were occupied by the Ottoman Empire.Byzantium appealed to the West for help, and the condition put forward by the West was that the two churches must be unified.Although Byzantium issued laws to unify the church, its residents did not accept Roman Catholicism.Some Westernmercenary armyWhen I came to Byzantium, most people in the West were indifferent to this, but the Pope promised to give necessary assistance, but the assistance of the Pope seemed so far away and poor.
The empire on the eve of its demise
in limineOttoman EmpireHe thought that the cost of attacking Constantinople was too high and not worth it. The city wall of Constantinople was very strong, and no one could conquer it for thousands of years except the crusaders.However, with the expansion of its territory, Constantinople gradually became the center of the territory of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, with the emergence of artillery, the amazing defense of this ancient and war ridden city wall was greatly weakened.
On May 29, 1453, after two years of siege,Mehmed II When Constantinople was conquered (later renamed Istanbul), the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI died a martyr.In 1461, Trabison was also occupied by Mohammed II.So far, all Byzantine territories have been completely lost.
Cultural continuity
Heyday
After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, in 1472, the Grand Duke of MoscowIvan IIIPrincess Sophia, the niece of Constantine XI, the last emperor of the Byzantine Empire, was married and announced to becomeThe Orthodox ChurchThe protector of.His grandsonivan iv Will become the first in Russiaczar。His successors believed that they were qualified successors of the Roman Empire and Constantinople, and were the third Roman Empire.Until their demise in the early 20th century,Ottoman EmpireandRussian EmpireThey all consider themselves the legitimate heirs of Byzantium.
stayConstantinoplecoverCrusadersandOttoman Turks Many Byzantine craftsmen took refuge in the west in the process of two successive human breakthroughs. They brought advanced culture and ideas to Western Europe at that timeThe RenaissanceLaid a cultural foundation.
The Byzantine Empire played a very important role in the process of transferring classical knowledge to the Islamic world.The most important impression is the Orthodox Church.The early Byzantine missionaries passed the Eastern Orthodox Church to the Slavs.So far, most Slavs and Greeks believe in the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the demise of the Byzantine Empire also indicates that Europethe medieval timesEnd of.
On the last night of the Byzantine Empire, some people boarded Latin warships and fled to Crete, Moria, Ionia Islands and Venice.A Genoese merchant ship kept its passenger list for the last night, on which there were six Baleoleo royalty, two Comnen royalty, two Rascaris royalty, and some minor nobles.These people and many other East Romans exiled to Western European countries with precious ancient documents, making people living in the Catholic theocracy world see Plato and Aristotle, Alexander and Caesar, as well as other glorious ideas of ancient Greece and Rome.Under the influence of these thoughts, human nature defeated divinity, and the rational light of the Greeks shone through the curtain of the Pope and feudal system, bringing the light of the Renaissance to Western Europe.On the ruins of the Byzantine Empire, the new world of Western Europe was born.
The Russian tsar never gave up his attempt to restore the Byzantine Empire.Catherine the Great It was once envisaged that Constantinople would be the new capital of Russia, Saint Sophia's Cathedral would be his palace, and one of his grandchildren would be named Constantine.Russian tsarAlexander I 、Nicholas I 、alexander ii andnicholas ii These Russian tsars launched a series of wars against the Ottoman Empire, which had once crossed Europe, Asia and Africa, and tried to recover Constantinople, but these attempts were all carried out by Britain (1856Crimean War）Or Germany (1878Berlin Conference ）And other countries were defeated.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Gustavo Klimt (1862-1918), an Austrian painter and sculptor, copied the Byzantine art of Japan in his creation.The murals and mosaics created by the artist in Brussels are proof of this.[15]
Justinian I When inheriting the power of the emperorWestern Roman EmpireThe territory of the Byzantine Empire includes only the Balkan Peninsula, the southern shore of the Black Sea, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and Egypt.Justinian I was committed to restoring the glory of the Roman Empire, launched expeditions to the western Mediterranean world for many times, recovered part of the western part of the empire, and regained control of Italy, the Maghreb along the Mediterranean in North Africa, southern Spain andStrait of Gibraltar。By the time Justinian I died (565).Except Gaul and northern Spain, the Byzantine Empire basically reoccupied Rome.mediterranean seaOnce again, it became the inland sea of the empire.But the good times are not long. The territory of the former Rome, which was recovered by Justinian I, has been subjected to foreign aggression.At the end of the sixth century,SlavicandAwar peopleMass invasionBalkan Peninsula，PersiaThe army invaded the Asian territory of the empire and reached the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea,LombardyThe Byzantine army also retreated to Ravenna Governorate.By the middle of the 7th century,arabIt also seized the territory of the Byzantine Empire in Asia and Africa with fierce attacks, which led to great changes in the empire's territory.In the 8th century, the territory of the Byzantine Empire only included Asia Minor with the Anatolian Plateau and the upper reaches of the Euphrates River as the eastern landmarks, andMacedoniaThe Balkan Peninsula with the border in the north, andaegean sea。[16]
After the Byzantine Pareolig dynasty regained control of Constantinople in 1261, its territory was limited to the area near Constantinople, the Trabison Kingdom on the south bank of the Black Seapeloponnesian peninsulaSouthernmorea Region andEpirusAlthough the mountainous area recognized the suzerainty of the Byzantine central government, it exercised independent rule.The territory of the Byzantine Empire was finally "established" until its final demise.[16]
Change of Byzantine Empire Territory
Politics
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ruling class
The highest power of the Byzantine Empire was held by the emperor.The emperor is the symbol of the whole empire, the highest political leader, the highest commander of the army, the highest judicial judge and the highest ruler of religion.
The emperor of the Byzantine Empire has three titles.The most common form of address is Basileus, which comes from the ancient Greeks' address to the king.HeracliusThe emperor used this title to replace the title Augustus (\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\.By the 15th century, the Byzantine emperor called himself "Basileus ton Hellion", that is, "the emperor of the Greeks".Except for the Byzantine emperor, other major powers (such asSassanid Persian ）The monarch was also known by Byzantium as μν≤ ρχη.The monarchs of small countries are called ργ α (Regas, fromLatin"Rex", the king).
Byzantine Emperor Basil II
Another name of the Byzantine emperor is α ντ ο κρτωρρ (Autokrator), which isGreekThe direct translation of the title "Imperator" of the Roman emperor emphasizes the meaning of "military head", which is the same as that of "Imperator" in Rome.Other titles of the Byzantine emperor include k \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\?(Panhyperebastos) and so on.
The Byzantine emperor had high power, and he was deified as the representative of God in the world, with supreme holiness.The emperor can hold religious meetings, appoint and remove church leaders and senior priests.In this regard, the Byzantine Empire was very different from the Western European countries at the same time.The emperor's residence is called "Holy Palace" or "Holy Palace".Senior officials can kiss the emperor's right chest, while junior officials can only kiss the emperor's feet.The foreign envoys saluted in a kneeling position.None of them had the right to speak to the emperor first. They could only answer questions when the emperor asked questions through his attendants.
Purple is the exclusive color of the Byzantine emperor. The emperor's imperial power symbols include the crownwandAnd the treasure ball (symbolizing the earth).The sun is regarded as the symbol of the emperor. On December 25 every year, the emperor will wear the golden halo symbolizing the sun and participate in the celebration of the Sun Festival (Hanukkah).Christmas on January 6, May 11Constantinople（Istanbul）The Emperor also presided over the City Building Festival, the Harvest Festival on August 25, and large-scale sports and celebration activities.
The marriage of the Byzantine emperor was monogamous, and there were no other concubines except the empress.The main way of inheritance of the throne is blood inheritance, especially the male first son inheritance law, that is, the emperor's eldest son is the first heir in line. If the emperor has no son, the eldest daughter will inherit, and the youngest daughter with a son will inherit the throne higher than the eldest daughter without a son. If there are no children, other relatives will inherit the throne.Among the 12 dynasties and 93 emperors of the Byzantine Empire, 24 inherited the throne as the emperor's eldest son (including adopted son), and 11 inherited the throne as the emperor's other sons.When the emperor has no children, the emperor's brothers, nephews, sisters, daughters, parents, grandchildren and spouses have the right to inherit the throne.Byzantine law recognized women's inheritance rights.The main factor threatening the Byzantine emperor's throne was the coup.When the emperor's administrative measures caused dissatisfaction among the citizens of the capital, he may also lose his throne in the mass uprising (for example, in 532Nika riots InJustinian I , 1042Michael VEmperor Andronicus in 1185, and father and son emperor in 1204Isaac II Angelos Alexius IV).
The aristocratic ranks of the Byzantine Empire include princesGrand Duke(This title is usually awarded to the commander in chief of the navy), duke, marquis, earl, viscount and baron.Honorary titles derived from the position of the ancient Roman patriarch include outstanding and prominent people. These titles can only be enjoyed for life, not hereditary.
Eunuchs played an important role in Byzantine court life.Famous military generals in the 6th centuryNaris, whose identity is eunuch.Constantine I set up the chief administrator of the court, who was responsible for managing the emperor's internal palace and arranging the schedule for ministers to meet the emperor.By the fifth century, this position had risen to the level of the Minister of Justice.In addition, there are eunuch officials in charge of royal clothing, horses, food, falcons, royal ships, music, medicine, etc.These officials constituted non hereditary court nobles, who issued orders for the emperor and held great power.
Administrative system
The early Byzantine Empire adopted an administrative system similar to that of the Roman Empire, with the establishment of the Yuan Old House, consuls and regional governors.Over time, the elders and consuls gradually became honorary titles.
The Byzantine emperor's assistant minister organization isconference in which the emperor takes partIts members include the Deacon Officer (\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ConstantinopleMayor, etc.The deacon is the most important senior official of the empire, whose functions and powers include commanding the forbidden army, patrolling the troops, supervising officials at all levels, issuing official documents, presiding over diplomatic activities, concluding treaties, participating in the hearing of major cases, taking charge of the internal and external affairs of the imperial palace and other important responsibilities.The selection of deacons is not based on their origin and rank, but on their actual ability, ability and loyalty to the emperor. They are directly appointed by the emperor.After the 7th century, the deacon officer also gradually became a false position.
Byzantine Empire in its heyday
According to the administrative system of ancient Rome, the Byzantine Empire divided the country into several regions, each of which included several provinces in Roman times.The early Byzantine Empire set up four regions, namely, the Eastern Region (Constantinople) and the Illyrian Region（Salonika）, Italy（ravenna ）And Africa（Carthage）。The regional governor is the plenipotentiary of the emperor, exercising administrative and judicial powers.Because of the great power of regional governors, successive emperors after Constantine I gradually cut off their power and distributed some of their power to provincial governors.In the first half of the seventh century, the post of regional governor was abolished.The Byzantine Empire also set up local governors directly under the central government of the Empire in important provinces and strategic places.
The mayor of Constantinople (ε πα ρ χ οζτηζ ππ 〇 λ ε ωζ) is also a senior official, ranking second only to the deacon. His duties are similar to those of the regional governors in other regions. He is in charge of the administrative and judicial power of the capital, has public security responsibilities, and holds certain military command.
The national gold mine, silver mine, mint and treasury of the Byzantine Empire were controlled by the chief treasurer (μ ε γ - λ _0 γ _0 θ τη).The Grand Treasurer has 10 divisions, including the Church Affairs Division, the Military Payment Division, the Posthouse Division, the Mint Division, the Revenue Statistics Division, the Regional Financial Affairs Division, the Mining Division, the Ordnance Division, the Workshop Division, and the Emperor's Clothing Division.The royal finance (including royal land) is in the charge of the Royal Private Property Officer, and the regional governors control the local treasury.
judicial system
Justinian and his courtiers
Byzantine law belongs toroman lawSystem.The Minister of Justice (να\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\.
Judges of Byzantium must receive more than five years of specialized legal education, fully master Roman civil law, pass strict national examinations, and obtain qualification certificates before they can engage in judicial work.Early judges were also in charge of commercial arbitration, taxation, administration and other businesses. Justinian I's judicial reform required judges to be full-time and distinguish judges from legislators.The deacon, the regional governor and the mayor of Constantinople hold a higher level of legal arbitration power than the judge, while the Byzantine emperor always holds the highest legislative and judicial power.
The perfection of Roman law is based onJustinian I (reigned from 527 to 565).He felt the collapse of the Western Roman Empire and actively reformed internal affairs.In the second year after he ascended the throne, he entrusted a special committee to sort out and compile the legal corpus of the empire.
When Justinian was alive, he completed four collections of laws.I.e《Justinian Code》The four laws are called RomeCivil Law》。
The promulgation of Justinian's Code marked the development of Roman law to a complete stage. He retained the creative achievements of Roman law in the field of law, and provided legal means for regulating complex social contradictions by making legal norms for people's behavior.It has played a role of blueprint for the law making of later capitalist countries.
On the whole, in addition to the religious influence and the legal system inherited from Rome, the Byzantine Empire's system was more inclined to be similar to the centralized monarchy in ancient China, and was significantly different from the feudal system in Western Europe.
military
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military strategy
The military strategy of the Byzantine Empire was quite different from that of its predecessor, the Roman Empire.The latter is on the offensive, while the former, in addition to the active external expansion during the reign of Justinian the Great, is generally on the defensive, even ifMacedonian dynasty andBaleolian DynastyIn the early period of external expansion, the goal was also to recover the lost soil, not to develop Xinjiang soil.
There are many reasons for this military defense, including the influence of Christian doctrine, the slow growth of the population of the empire, and the mentality of cultural superiority relative to the surrounding nations.With its surroundingsSlavic、Persian、arabandTurkicIn contrast, the Byzantine people did not worship martial arts, and their fierce, aggressive and advocating force were regarded as the manifestations of rudeness, ignorance and barbarism.The Byzantine Empire regarded military as an art, and paid more attention to the perfection of war and the wisdom of both sides, rather than the results of war.
services
The main components of the early Byzantine army included the border guards, field troops and the Goth guards stationed in the imperial palace.Border guards stationed in rivers and land borders, serving 24 years;Field troops are stationed in military fortresses and transportation hubs in the mainland, and they and the Palace Guard need to serve for 20 years.The barbarians on the border of the empire provided reserve troops to the empire, which was under the direct command of the emperor.
Maritime trade was Byzantium's main source of income, so the Byzantium navy was valued in the early stage of the empire.In 678, the Byzantine Navy usedGreek firestayMarmara SeaDefeated the Arab fleet and defeatedMuaviyeCaliphAn attempt to conquer East Rome.In the summer of 717, the Arab army dispatched 2560 ships under the command of Moslema to attack Constantinople, and returned to Syria andAlexandriaThere are only five warships left.However, after the external threat was lifted, the Byzantine emperor adopted the policy of restricting the navy.The main reason for this was the commander of the navy in 698Tiberius Launched a coup, sent a fleet to besiege Constantinople, and in 711Black Sea FleetLaunch an uprising, forceJustinian II The emperor abdicated.
After the 10th century, the measures taken by the Byzantine emperor to decentralize military power and reduce military funds also affected the combat effectiveness of the Byzantine navy.After the Battle of Manzikete in 1071, Byzantium lost its positionAsia MinorMost of the naval bases and excellent horse producing areas in China turned to employ foreign fleets to deal with maritime threats.RussianGenoaPeople, English peopleVenicePeopleMilanPeople andCataloniaPeople provided Byzantium with warships or sailors.By 1449, the new emperorConstantine Xi When going to the capital from Peloponnese, the Byzantine fleet was completely destroyed and could not bring a decent ship. The emperor had to take the Catalan merchant ship to the capital.
Military region system
Infantry and baggage forces of the Eastern Roman Empire in the 10th and 12th centuries
Byzantine frontier guards adoptedMilitary region systemThe military region is under the command of the border governor.In the 6th century, the Byzantine Empire had three military regions, namely, the Eastern Military Region, Thrace Military Region and Illyria Military Region. The Armenian Military Region was established in 528, and the Maritime Military Region was established in 537.The frontier guards receive farmland from the government, cultivate it by themselves or hire others to cultivate it, and provide self-sufficient military rations.The most basic unit of the border defense army and the field army is a team, with 5 people per team;Two shifts form one row;10 platoons are a company (so the company commander is also called a centurion);Six companies are a battalion (600 people);Three to four battalions are a regiment (2400 people);Three to four regiments form a division (10000 people).The military region system paved the way for the feudalization of Byzantium.[17]
During the reign of Emperor Heraclius, the military administrative state (Saima) system was implemented in the western territory of the empire, and new Saima was established for all lands recovered by the Byzantines.By the 9th century, in the European territory of ByzantiumIonian IslandsandEpirusThe state of Saima is generally established in several islands and coastal cities along the Adriatic coast from Macedonia to the Black Sea.
Since the 11th century, the Byzantine traditional military region system collapsed.As military generals have repeatedly intervened in the internal struggle of the royal family,Basil II Later successive emperors began to disband military regions and hereditary forces to curb the development of military nobility.They replaced professional armies with mercenaries, and cut military spending to limit the military power.These measures in turn further stimulated the military nobility to take risks and launch a coup, creating an internal vicious circle. This internal vicious circle made the Byzantine Empire unable to resist attacks from external forces, so the national power became weaker and weaker, and military spending was further reduced, forming an external vicious circle.
Comnenus dynasty The emperor tried to restore the military region system, but failed.1204CrusadersBy the time Constantinople was captured, the Byzantine army had been completely disintegrated.Empire of Nicaea After the restoration of the country,Baleolian DynastyIt can only rely on foreign mercenaries (Turkic mercenaries in the early days, and Venice and Genoa mercenaries in the last war of the demise of the empire).The Byzantine army includes infantry, cavalry, baggage troops and logistics personnel.The weapons used by infantrymen include swords, battle axes, spears and bows and arrows, while cavalry use bows and arrows.Large siege weapons includeRiprap、Siege hammer、LadderAnd the siege tower.In the battle of defending the city and the sea battle,Greek fireIt is also widely used.Byzantine weapons production is strictly controlled by the state, especially the production of Greek fire, which is regarded as the top secret of the state.
military technique
The Byzantine Empire adopted the defensive military thought, so its city building technology was greatly developed.Among the military defense buildings of the Byzantine Empire, the city defense system of Constantinople is the most representative defense fortification.In the 5th century, due to the rapid population growth, Emperor Theodosius II built Theodosius City Wall beside the city wall built by Constantine, which doubled the city area.Since the Thrace Plain is flat outside the city, this section of urban defense system is designed to be extremely complex.From the outside to the inside, the city wall of Theodosius is divided into the outer retaining wall, the moat, the inner wall of the moat, the steep slope retaining wall, the outer city wall (Peribolos), the outer city wall, the inner city wall (Parataichion), and the inner city wall. More than 300 towers, turrets, and blockhouses stand on the outer city wall and the inner city wall, forming a powerful fire support system.
In the history of the Byzantine Empire, there were many outstanding military generals, such asBerisaliu、NarisTheophrus, many Byzantine emperors were also soldiers with excellent military leadership, such as those known as "Bulgarian butchers"Basil II 。Even the last emperor of the Byzantine Empire,Constantine Xi With the help of Genoese Justiniani, he excellently commanded the defense of Constantinople, led his troops to resist the enemy, and died bravely in the battle.
Economics
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The largest territory controlled by the Byzantine Empire was 3.56 million square kilometers (during Justinian I), and the peak population was 34 million (in the 4th century AD).The empire's economy was based on agriculture and had developed commerce and handicrafts.For hundreds of years in the early Middle Ages, Byzantium was the most economically developed country in Europe.Its currency, Solidus, has long been the international currency of Europe and West Asia.
althoughArmeniaOfgold mineandbalkanThe rich silver deposits of the Byzantine Empire provided the source of precious metals, but the main income of the Byzantine Empire came from tariffs and trade taxes collected in commercial trade (in addition to transit taxes, city entry taxes, real estate turnover taxes, etc.).Constantinople (Istanbul), the capital of Byzantium, is located at the intersection of Europe, Asia and Africa. Since ancient times, it has been the place where merchant ships from all over the world converge and the end of the Silk Road. Developed international entrepot trade has brought huge wealth to local residents.Salonika、Trabzonspor、AntiochandAlexanderSuch cities were also important trade ports of the Byzantine Empire.The Byzantine imports mainly included silk, furslave, grain, precious wood, incense, dyes, ivory, precious stones, rare animals and other luxury goods, and export goods includeGlassMosaic mosaic, high-grade silk and brocade, weapons, wine, gold and silver coins, jewelry and handicrafts.The currency of Byzantium remained stable for a long time.One pound of gold was used to cast 72 gold coins called "Nomismata", one Nomismata was equal to 12 silver coins, and one silver coin was equal to 12 copper coins.A worker works 280 days a year and earns about 25 Nuomismata's annual salary, so he can maintain his food and clothing needs.
Trade
After the 7th century AD, Byzantium's international trade was affected by the war with Persia and ArabiaPersian GulfThe trade routes with Syria were interrupted, forcing Byzantium to open up and passCrimson SeaSea trade and passage into the ancient Indian OceanBlack Sea、Caspian Sea、Aral SeaLand trade routes.By the 9th century, Byzantium's international trade reached its peak.
In the 11th century,TurkiccaptureAsia MinorByzantium gradually lost its commercial stronghold along the coast of the Black Sea.At the same time, due toVeniceThe rise of, andGenoaThe business of Byzantium began to decline due to the competition of Catalan merchants.The Normans invaded the silk industrial centers of Thebes and Corinth in southern Greece and brought a large number of sericulture technicians and silk weavers to Sicily, breaking Byzantium's monopoly on silk.Several crusades, especially the fourthCrusaders invade eastward, seriously damaged the commercial status of Byzantium and completely changed the pattern of Mediterranean trade.In several royal struggles in the late Byzantine Empire, in order to obtain funds, the contenders for the Byzantine throne repeatedly used commercial trade privileges as collateral, which made the domestic commerce, which had been severely damaged, even more difficult.Constantinople and Trabzong were no longer the distribution centers of oriental goods, but their status was taken away by Venice's commercial strongholds in the eastern Mediterranean.Venetian and Genoese merchants even gained commercial privileges in Byzantine territoryGalataA commercial colony was established.By the 14th century, Byzantine commerce had completely shrunk.
tax revenue
In addition to business tax, other sources of economic income of the Byzantine Empire also included property tax levied on the elders and monetary tax levied on urban industrial and commercial owners.The empire also levied taxes on horses, cloth and other goods from urban industrial and commercial owners.Urban citizens also have to pay notarization taxstamp duty, judicial tax and other indirect taxes.Rich citizens also have to pay for street lamp fuel, festival horse racing, charities, urban health and fire fighting.
Byzantine agricultural taxes were collected collectively from villages according to the acreage of fields, and the taxes needed to pay on the deserted farmland abandoned by fugitive farmers were paid by their villages.In May and September of each year, the itinerant judges and tax officials of the empire went to the countryside to collect taxes. They surveyed the land situation every three years to determine the tax amount.
Late Byzantine copper coins
After the loss of Syria, the main agricultural province, in the eighth century, the Byzantine Empire increased its efforts to cultivate land in the Balkans and Asia Minor.When the land in these places was gradually lost to Slavs and Turks in the 11th and 14th centuries, and the commercial trade of the empire was extremely shrinking, the Byzantine Empire naturally had financial difficulties.In the 14th century, in order to raise money, Queen Anna de Savoy ordered to melt the gold and silver wares in the palace and cast coins.One recordedJohn VThe Byzantine historian of the coronation ceremony once lamented: "Most of the emperors' crowns and crowns look like gold jewelry, but they are actually dyed with gold leather and decorated withStained glassPretend to be a gem.The tall gold cup filled with rubies, emeralds and pearls used by the former emperor to taste good wine has been replaced with a white tin cup or clay cupYou can see things like natural and beautiful gems and colorful pearls everywhere, but they can't fool everyone's eyes... The prosperity and glory of the Roman Empire has declined to this extent, and the former glory has completely disappeared... "
toBaleolian DynastyAt the end of the period, the Byzantine Empire had completely relied on the sale of royal property, land and usury to maintain the necessary expenses.To raise cash, the Empire askedSerbiaPeopleBulgariaPeople, Venetians, Genoese and Turks have repeatedly ceded land, and even Thrace and Galata, which are vital to the capital and the country, have also been ceded, making the empire lose the last resources for self rescue.1423Manuel II After Salonika, the second largest city, was sold to Venice, the Byzantine Empire had no land to cut and no taxes to collect. Only a small amount of industrial and commercial taxes in Constantinople left the Byzantine Empire.This situation undoubtedly had a significant impact on the final demise of the Byzantine Empire.
handicraft industry
Byzantine silk products were also one of the most valuable goods of the empire.The initial silkworm eggs and silkworm rearing technology of the Byzantine EmpireEmperor Justinian It was smuggled from China during the period, and then the state-owned sericulture industry was established in southern Greece.Silk production and spinning are strictly controlled by the government. Price speculation is strictly prohibited, or the purplish red dyes specially used for silk are exported abroad.Purple silk clothing and carpets are exclusive to the royal family, while other silk fabrics are embroidered with delicate patterns.CharlemagneThe burial shroud was made of Byzantine silk.In the 14th century, with the further improvement of textile technology, brocades with more complex patterns appeared, which were woven with gold and silver threads and were made into dresses, altar covers, curtains, tapestries, carpets, and became important tributes in the foreign policy of the Byzantine Empire.
Culture
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Religion
Byzantines believed that Christianity was the foundation of the empire.Since the era of the Roman Empire, Christian theology in the eastern part of the empire has been influenced by Jewish theology and classical Greek philosophy.From May 25 to August 25, 325, the first meeting was held in Nicia, East RomeNicene Religious Conference, established the basic tenets of Byzantine Christianity, namely《Nicene Creed》。The four religious conferences of the Constantinople Religious Conference in 381, the Ephesian Religious Conference in 431, the Chalcedon Religious Conference in 451, and the Constantinople Religious Conference in 553 further confirmed the status of Christianity as the state religion, and the status of the Constantinople diocese was also confirmed, which was second only to the Roman diocese in the five major Christian dioceses.IslamismAfter its rise, influenced by its doctrine of "forbidding idolatry", it took place in the Byzantine EmpireIconoclastic movement。
In 787nicaea The seventh religious conference explained the difference between idol worship and idolatry, and the theological system of the Byzantine Christian Church was officially determined. Since then, no major changes have taken place.This religion later developed intoThe Orthodox Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church (Greek Orthodox Church).In addition to the orthodox sects, because the Byzantine Empire included territories with different cultures, such as Greece, Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and so on, various heretical ideas rose in these places, including Arians (which rose in the eastern part of the empire)NestorianNestoriansNestorianism, which rose in Syria), Macedonius, Monophysts (which rose in Egypt), Monophyllism, and Paulicians (which rose in Egypt)Asia MinorandArmenia）, Bogomili (rising in Bulgaria) and other heretical sects.
The relationship between religious power and secular power in the Byzantine Empire was very complicated.The combination and conflict of their interests led to the unity, cooperation and fierce conflict between the two sides.Generally speaking, before the 9th century, due to the strict laws and efficientCentralizationIn administration, the Byzantine church was deprived of the space to participate in state affairs. Church affairs became part of the imperial state affairs, and the Byzantine emperor became the protector of the church, controlling the appointment and removal of bishops and archbishops in Rome and Constantinople, the two largest dioceses.fromconstantine i reachJustinian I During the period, many bishops were dismissed from their posts by the emperor, and Roman bishops (later became popes) had to obey the Byzantine emperor before the middle of the eighth century.No member of the teaching staff has the right to expel the emperor.
After the 9th century, the power of the imperial emperor gradually weakened, and the strength of the church gradually increased.The church began to interfere in the management of the empire, including the trial of any cases handled by secular courts, as well as tax and judicial privileges.However, compared withthe roman catholic churchIn contrast, the Byzantine church never got rid of the control of the emperor and always existed as a tool of the state power.
literature
The Byzantine Empire attached great importance to the construction of libraries as an important condition for academic research. The Byzantine people also inherited the Greek tradition of loving literature, history and philosophy, laying the foundation for the Byzantine style.
Byzantine literature includes novels, story collections, poems and other forms.Byzantine satirical prose and essays originated fromAncient Greek LiteratureHis satirical prose embodies a serious theme in a humorous narrative style. Friends of the Motherland in the 10th century, Mazares in the 12th century and Lord of the Manor are all representative works of Byzantine satirical prose.The contemporary medical and philosophical works also imitate this style of satirical prose.Byzantium's masterpiece of miscellanies is "The Christian Country" written by the businessman Golimas in the 6th century, and the novel is mainly translatedancient Indiastory.
Byzantine poetry is mainly religious poetry used in liturgy, emphasizing rhythm, and develops the music form of duet from the poetry of answering duet.
music
Byzantine music originated from ancient Greek and Roman music. It was used to create a warm atmosphere in court ceremonies, major ceremonies, festival celebrations, folk wedding ceremonies and other occasions.However, there are few complete scores left by secular music, so little is known about its music theory, scale, melody and tone.The remaining Byzantine music is mainly the religious music of the Eastern Orthodox Church, especially in GreeceMount Athos（Holy Mountain Peninsula）Religious music.This kind of music is mainly polyphonic music, with the same tune, modulation and harmony appearing repeatedly. It is divided into the high pitched and gorgeous high pitched part and the gentle and gentle low pitched part. The lyrics of each paragraph pay attention to rhythm, not rhythm.
Fine Arts
Byzantine art is characterized by its decorative, abstract and religious meanings.The Byzantine art works that exist are mostly in churchesMosaicMurals and painting scrolls, including themes of Jesus, the Virgin and the Son, angels and archangels, saints, emperors and bishops, and heaven and hell.Mosaic mosaics are mostly decorative, with formulaic plane composition and brilliant colors. The main colors are gold and blue, with white, purple, blue, yellow, pink, green, red, black and other colors between them.
Most Byzantine statues are made of wood, with patterns made of small mosaics or pigments, decorated with gold, silver, enamel and ivory, and inlaid with jewelry.The influence of Byzantine icon art on later Orthodox countries such as Russia and GreeceReligious artHas a great impact,Sassanid Persian OfClose drawingThe technology also comes from the fine mosaic technology of Byzantine mosaics.In addition to religious themes, there are also some Byzantine painting scrolls that reflect the military, battles, daily life, animals and plants, and other themes.
Architecture
Byzantine architecture can be divided into three stages, namely the early stage (from the 4th to the 6th century), the middle stage (from the 7th to the 12th century) and the late stage (from the 13th to the 15th century).The early stage was the heyday of Byzantine architecture. Most of the architectural works were modeled on the ancient Roman style. The main buildings included the city walls, city gates, palaces, squares, arches, elevated waterways, public baths and cisterns, and churches of Constantinople.After Christianity became the state religion, Byzantine church buildings became larger and more luxurious, and by the 6th century AD, an unprecedentedst sophia 。
The architecture of the middle Byzantine period reflected the national characteristics of this period, that is, the barbarians and foreign enemies invaded one after another, shrinking the territory and declining the national strength.The buildings in this period were smaller and smaller than before.The Byzantine church architecture of this period was characterized by its small footprint and its development into the air. The central large vault like St. Sophia's Cathedral was canceled, and several small vaults were replaced, with emphasis on interior decoration.The representative buildings of this period include the Acatalepthos Monastery and Chora Monastery in Constantinople, as well as the St. Mark's Church in Venice outside the empire and Kiev'sSaint Sophia。
After several invasions by the Crusaders, the Byzantine Empire suffered a great loss of national strength and was unable to build large public buildings and churches.The number of Byzantine buildings built in this period was not large, and there was no innovation. Most of them were damaged after the destruction of the Byzantine Empire by the Turks.St. Mary's Church in Constantinople is a representative work of late Byzantine architecture.
Byzantium believed that the power of heaven was shown in the gold, silver and jewelry of the emperor and the church.Palace and SaintSophia CathedralThe more luxurious it is, the more it can prove the nobility of the afterlife that every Christian expects. Therefore, the palace and Sophia Cathedral have become huge treasure houses.In 1204,CrusadersAnd the Venetians found more than 1700 gold, pearls, precious stones andEnamelThe small altar, more than 40000 gold and silver incense burners and reliquaries, as well as other treasures piled up like mountains.Among the Byzantine handicrafts that exist in the world, the most exquisite one is that existing in VeniceSt. Mark's ChurchPalaD'Oro, made of gold, enamel, pearls and precious stones.In 976, the Venetian governor commissioned Byzantine craftsmen to make the central panel of the altar. In 1105, more enamel panels were ordered.During the Fourth Crusade, the Venetian army robbed the icons of Saint Sophia Cathedral and many monasteries to Venice and added them to the altar.
science
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Byzantium inherited the ancient Greek custom of attaching importance to science and education.Arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy were regarded as the "four arts" by Byzantine people. Philosophy, rhetoric and ancient Greek were also compulsory subjects for schoolchildren.Theology belongs to the category of higher education, but ordinary people pay very high attention to theology. It is often seen that there are fierce theological debates between peddlers and pawns.In applied science, civil engineering related to city building, metallurgy and geography related to military affairs, and chemical knowledge required for making "Greek fire" have all been highly developed. However, such knowledge is not popularized to the public, but is taught to specific students as a confidential subject.
Byzantine medicine developed from the ancient Greek medical system,HippocratesByzantine people widely accepted his theory of constitution, and believed that blood, mucus, yellow bile and black bile were the basis of the pathological classification of human constitution. All diseases were caused by the imbalance of dry, wet, cold and heat.In the 4th century, the Diagnostics compiled by Eurisius Bass, the personal physician of Emperor Julian, in the 7th century, Gynecology, Toxicology and Prescription compiled by Paul (whose surname was lost), and Food and Health Manual compiled by Simeon in the 11th century were all based on Hippocratic theory.Byzantine herbal medicine is very developed. Blood letting, massage, burning and other methods are also used to treat patients.There were military medical teams in the Byzantine army, and the great monasteries usually also had hospitals to receive and treat civilian patients.Bathing habits and regular washing of streets are the main means of urban public health.
nation
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The ethnic composition of the Byzantine Empire was extremely complex, including Greeks, Syrians, Copts, Armenians, Georgians and Hellenized Asians Minor.During the foreign invasion, they moved into Goths (4-5th century), Slavs (6-7th century), Arabs (7-9th century) and Turks (11-13th century).For a long time, people of all ethnic groups have gradually integrated.The Greeks played a decisive role in political and economic life. The imperial language was dominated by Latin in the 4th to 6th centuries and Greek in the 7th to 15th centuries.
International Relations
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At the beginning, Rome only traded with some small neighboring countries, with a small scope.Until 138 to 119 years ago,Martial EmperorTwo assignmentsdiplomat famed for exploits in Inner AsiaHe sent envoys to the Western Regions and passedthe Silk RoadTrade with Rome indirectly;Eastern Han DynastyBan ChaodispatchGan YingEnvoyRoman Empire, but only toPersian GulfOne belt will return without success;In 166, the Roman Empire sent envoys to Luoyang, the capital of the Han Dynasty, and sent gifts such as rhinoceros horn, so that the East and the West were closely linked.
Western Han DynastyIn exchange for silk, tea and porcelainrestGems, spices, medicinal materials and glassware from Greece, Rome and Macedonia.In addition to frequent visits, the two sides also delivered their own products and technologies to each other, promoting the exchange of material and spiritual civilizations between the East and the West, and benefiting the people of the East and the West.In the Han Dynasty, Yunnan could go down the Irrawaddy River by water and sail out of the Bay of Bengal to India.It is connected to the Indian Ocean Channel.According to Wei Lue, Biography of Xirong, the waterway of the State of Qin, which connects Yongchang County, Yizhou, will land on the coast of Myanmar and reach Yongchang.The description of the place to the east of India's east coast in the Voyage of Eritrean Industry Sea can also confirm this route.In the History of Myanmar, the British historian Harvey said that since the second century BC, China has used Myanmar as a commercial channel, "along the Irrawaddy River, along the Salween River, there is still a ride along the Chindwinr (today's Qindun River) through Manipur, which takes three months to Afghanistan.Businessmen exchanged Chinese silk and other famous products for Myanmar's gems, jadeite and kapok;Indian rhinoceros horn, ivory, European gold and other treasures.
Du HuanOf《Jingxingji》He and the Western Regions Biography of the Tang Dynasty have detailed records on the properties, buildings, folk customs, etc. of Fudang State, but it is believed that some of the records in the Tang Dynasty books are derived from the analogy of Chang'an in the Tang Dynasty.In the Tang Dynasty, between Chang'an and Fuxuan,West TurkicThere were frequent diplomatic envoys and business travel contacts between the Khanate and Fuxuan, especially the Western Turks who had united with it against PersiaSassanid Empire 。Nestorianism(ChristianityNestorianism）When it comes from that place.
Sociology
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diet
Byzantine Empire is located in the warm and humid Mediterranean climate zone, and the climate largely determines the diet and clothing habits of Byzantine people.
According to On Food, an anonymous Byzantine writer, the diet of Byzantine people in different regions is slightly different, but the staple food is basically bread and beans (added to soup or vegetables).In the capital Constantinople, because of the high price of meat, the staple food of ordinary people is bread, olives, onions, lentils, cheese and fish.In other places, cattle, sheep, pigs, horses, chickens, ducks, geese and other livestock meat are widely eaten.Constantinople people like to eat sea fish, and freshwater fish is usually used to feed cats and dogs.Other vegetables mentioned in Byzantine historical materials include radish, cabbage, garlic, onion, pumpkin, lettuce, leek, cucumber, spices include sesame, coriander, pepper, cloves, and fruits mainly include apples, figs, watermelon, apricots, and grapes.The drinks are home brewed wine and beer.Olive oil is added to almost all foods.
The food produced in various regions mainly meets the local needsSalonika、AntiochSuch big cities rely on imported grain and government's grain depot allocation.Byzantine Empire Lost in the 7th CenturyEgypt、AfrikaandSyriaAfter the provinces, grain production decreased, meat consumption began to increase, and wool and flax also replaced the raw cotton produced in Egypt as the main textile materials.
Clothes & Accessories
Byzantine costumes also vary from region to region. It's cold and rainy in winterMacedoniaandthe danubeThe clothing styles in border areas are very different from those in arid and hot Egypt.Silk is the raw material monopolized by the royal family. Silk production is concentrated in southern Greece, and silk trading is also strictly controlled by official businessmen.Without the permission of the royal family, civilians are not allowed to wear silk clothes at will.The purple silk robe is the exclusive clothing of the emperor and empress, while the high-ranking church people wear brocade religious robes and vests made of gold and silver.The clothes of ordinary people are mostly made of cotton and linen. From the existing Byzantine painting scroll, in the 1100 year history of the empire, the clothing style is basically light and thin Mediterranean style, and the main clothing styles include robes, shawls, waist cloth, and leather boots.
Imperial lineage
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dynasty
Emperor's name
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Theodosius Dynasty (after the death of Theodosius I, the Roman Empire was officially split, and the Byzantine Empire was inherited by the eldest son Arcadius)
