Parliamentary system

[yì huì zhì]

One kind of democratic political system

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synonym parliamentary democracy (A political system in which parliament is supreme and can control the government) Generally refers to parliamentary system

Parliamentary system, which takes the parliament as the center of national political activities and the government is responsible for the parliament political system 。 Parliament in the modern sense was developed from the hierarchical meetings of feudal countries in medieval Europe. This evolution was first in British bourgeois revolution Implemented in.

The British hierarchy conference began in the 13th century. It consists of three levels: monks, nobles and civilians. By the 14th century, hierarchical conferences had developed into the bicameral system Parliament, but at that time the Parliament also had a strong feudal color, not bourgeois class The parliament of. Until 1688“ Glorious Revolution ”After that, the Parliament won the highest status and was established in Britain. Parliamentary system in the bourgeoisie“ Separation of powers ”Develop on the basis of principles.

Parliamentary The Constitution usually stipulates that the Parliament is composed of two chambers, and the members elected by universal suffrage are“ National will ”The representative of. Parliament acts as Representative organ Enjoy legislation, organization and supervision of the government (cabinet ）Etc. Parliament has a restrictive effect on the government, and the government is composed of party Or a coalition of political parties that do not support the government's main policies in Parliament, or through No confidence case Unless Dissolve Parliament The government must always resign. government Cabinet system The establishment of the parliamentary system was marked by the formation of the.^[1]

Parliamentary government can be divided into Unanimous government^[4] and Divided government ^[5] Two.

Chinese name: Parliamentary system
Foreign name: parliamentarianism^[2]
Alias: representative system
Narrow concept: The parliament is the highest authority. The government (cabinet) is composed of the majority party or coalition of political parties in the parliament and is responsible to the parliament. The parliament has the power to supervise the government's governance and decide on the political system of the government^[3]

Generalized concept: It refers to a system in which the parliament is composed of elected members, performs legislative functions according to the principle of separation of powers, and supervises the government to varying degrees^[3]

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Basic Introduction

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Parliamentary system

In countries adopting this political system, legislature It is not completely separated from the administrative organ. Parliamentary democracy is generally practiced in democratic countries, so there are many political parties participating in parliamentary margin elections. parliament Cabinet system Head of Government（ Chief Executive ）Separated from the head of state, the head of state is usually a ceremonial position and does not enjoy the actual executive power 。

The administrative center under the parliamentary system is the cabinet of the government, led by the head of government (generally referred to as the Prime Minister or Prime Minister). The Prime Minister or Prime Minister and all cabinet members are also generally elected from the members of Parliament, and the seats in Parliament are reserved after taking office. The head of government is often represented by Parliament Majority party Leadership. However, when the number of seats of the majority party is less than half minority party It is also possible to accumulate more than half of the seats through the establishment of an alliance to obtain the power to appoint the head of government. At this time, the government is called the coalition government, and the cabinet is called Joint Cabinet 。

In many countries, the cabinet or any member of the cabinet can pass the parliament to Vote of no confidence And was removed from office. In addition, the Head of Government may decide Dissolve Parliament After politely reporting to the head of state, the head of state orders the re holding of parliamentary elections.

In parliamentary democracy, the functions of the head of State and the head of Government are separated. In most parliamentary democratic countries, the head of state (monarch or president) is a symbolic position and only has some powers unrelated to the political situation, such as the right to appoint civil servants, sign laws, and accept foreign envoys. But the head of state will also keep some state of emergency The special power that can be used in, but in most cases (whether by convention or by law) such power will be implemented only after the support of the head of government. The order of the head of state must be issued by the head of government countersign The head of state cannot issue decrees by himself according to law.

Parliamentary democracy is also slightly different among countries. For example, some countries have explicitly defined the division of labor among government departments in the form of constitutions or laws, while others only follow the practice; The number of political parties in parliamentary democratic countries may also vary depending on the electoral system. in addition central government The relationship with local governments is also different Confederation system ， federalism still centralization (technically called Unitary system ）In 20% of countries, the central government may adopt parliamentary democracy.

Parliamentary democracy can even be used in local government: for example Oslo The administrative system of legislation system In part, the state, county and state governments of the United States, Britain, Germany and other countries also implement the parliamentary system.

Historical origin

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The parliamentary democracy in the modern sense can be traced back to England in the 18th century, although Sweden Has similar political system , but its influence is small.

The beginning of parliamentary democracy can be considered as 1714, when the British theory was that the king should preside over the cabinet and select the cabinet members. But because of the king at that time George I Unable to speak English, a minister in the cabinet was able to preside over cabinet meetings and gradually became the Prime Minister. With the gradual democratization of Parliament and the increase of parliamentary power, Parliament began to control the government, and finally was able to decide who the king must appoint to form a cabinet.

Westminster System As a result, the administrative system must legislation system be responsible for, Head of Government Exercise functions and powers in the name of the head of state. This system is based on the original British colonies Is quite popular in, for example Australia 、 New Zealand 、 Canada 、 South Africa 、 Ireland The Republic and other countries all use the parliamentary democracy of Westminster system. However, these countries do not completely copy the British system, such as Australia's senate Closer to the US Senate than to the UK The House of Lords New Zealand abolished the House of Lords.

Parliamentary democracy Continental Europe The spread of the First World War After that, the defeated democratic countries Britain and France Exported its own democratic political system to the defeated countries, such as Germany Weimar Republic and Austria It was at this time that parliamentary democracy was adopted. As early as the 19th century, European leftists politic force The activity has prepared for the democratization and parliamentary democracy of these countries. World War I Later, this democratization movement was also seen as one of the means to resist the extreme political forces with a broad mass base, and therefore parliamentary democracy was resisted by right-wing political forces and many people.

Features

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weakness

Parliamentary democracy Continental Europe Another challenge encountered is the political instability brought about by the small party in power and the emergence of extreme parties. The non cooperation among the political parties has led to the so-called "minority parliamentary democracy", and the small party's ruling often leads to the frequent parliamentary Vote of no confidence Thus causing waves of political crisis. stay World War I In later Europe, due to the failure of the first attempt of this parliamentary democracy, extreme forces in many countries gained power through democratic systems, but could escape democratic system For example, Mussolini came to power in Italy in 1922, Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, and Spain A dictatorship supported by the king. The real maturity of parliamentary democracy in Europe is the Second World War After that, except for France, it is mixed Presidential system And parliamentary Political system (technically called Double head system ）Outside, most Western Europe All countries adopt parliamentary democracy. 1990 Eastern Europe Socialist country After the system reform, they tend to use the double head system under the directly elected head of state.

Parliamentary democracy itself does not necessarily produce too many small parties and extreme parties Proportional representation system When the voting method is combined, it is easy to produce more small parties, leading to small parties in power. Under the system of proportional representation, as long as a party gains more than a certain amount in the country percentage (5% in many countries) vote , you can enter the parliament, regardless of whether there is a candidate of your own party in the individual constituency. And in Single constituency system (Plurality rule or Winner Take All), a candidate must obtain more votes than other candidates in a local constituency to enter the parliament. That is to say, a party with extreme views may hold parliament as long as it has certain supporters under the proportional representation system, but under the pure single electoral district system (without proportional representation), because the votes of extreme parties are scattered in various local electoral districts (and it is difficult for extreme parties in any local electoral district to obtain more than half of the votes) It is difficult for extreme parties to enter Parliament. For example, Britain, which has a purely single constituency system, Extreme nationalism Party“ British National Party ”The country won more than five percent of the votes, but had no seats in Congress. and Japan The system of single electoral district plus proportional representation of political parties has not won seats in any electoral district in the country Communist Party of Japan , because the national political parties won more votes than the threshold, they still can Participation in distribution Seats. So, electoral system Whether to use the proportional representation system or the pure single constituency system affects Government composition And performance.

The parliamentary system of government, the implementation of a single electoral district system, is likely to lead to domestic Party system Of Bipartisan system , causing the cabinet to Head of Government The United Kingdom is a typical example of the two party system. Implement single constituency system Proportional representation of party lists , which is easy to cause political party system multi-party system , resulting in Joint Cabinet And the coalition government.

advantage

① The Head of Government (Prime Minister/Prime Minister) is Legislature The leader of the largest political party takes office to ensure that the government's policies are supported in the legislature

② administration Contact with the legislature can improve Government efficiency And avoid coups

③ Although the term of office is unlimited, the legislature can remove incompetent heads of government at any time

④ Countries with parliamentary systems have been mostly successful

Parliamentary regime

Britain, most European countries (such as Germany, Italy Netherlands 、 Belgium 、 Northern Europe Etc.), Japan Canada 、 Australia 、 New Zealand 、 Israel 、 Singapore 、 Malaysia , India turkey Most Eastern European countries (such as poland 、 Czech Republic 、 Hungary Etc.) baltic states and Jamaica Etc. Including:

① Countries with a single electoral district system

Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, Canada, Britain, India, etc.

② Implement single constituency addition Proportional representation system Countries with electoral systems

Western Europe Most countries, such as Germany.

③ Implementation Plural electoral system Countries (more than one seat should be elected for each congressional constituency)

Japan before the 1990s

Westminster System

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Westminster System It is a special parliamentary democracy, originated in Britain, and its name comes from British Parliament Location of London Westminster. This system was widely used in the former UK colonial country , and has become the majority Commonwealth The political system adopted by the state. In the Westminster system, the head of state has greater emergency power, but is restricted by practice (rather than law) and less implemented.

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