Archaeology, a discipline that studies ancient human activities, belongs tohumanitiesIn China, it is a branch of history, while in the United States andCanadaIt is regarded as one of the branches of anthropology and is regarded as an independent discipline or part of history in Europe.
Archaeology is the discipline of reconstructing ancient history by using the relics left by the ancients.[3]Physical dataIncluding all kinds of relics and remains, most of them are buried underground and can only be systematically and completely revealed and collected after scientific investigation and excavation.Archaeology is based on thematerial goodsTo study the history of ancient human society.
Archaeology belongs tohumanitiesIn Chinahistorical scienceMost other countries in the world belong to anthropology and also belong to anthropologyArt HistoryOf.
meaning
Announce
edit
Archaeology has three main meanings:
The first meaning refers to historical knowledge obtained from archaeological research, which can sometimes be extended to books describing such knowledge;
The second meaning refers to the archaeological methods and techniques used to acquire such knowledge, including methods and techniques for collecting and preserving data, examining and verifying data, and compiling and sorting data;
The third meaning refers to theoretical research and interpretation to clarify thecausal relationshipTo demonstrate the laws existing in the development of ancient society and history.
As a modern science, archaeology has its substantial contents, thorough methods, systematic theories and clear goals.Although there is no universally recognized definition, the academic circles have roughly the same understanding of the term archaeology around the world.
Starting from the common understanding and considering the above three meanings, archaeology candefineSaid: Archaeology is a science that studies the history of ancient human society based on the objects left over by ancient humans through various activities.This definition needs to be explained and explained.[2]
Name traceability
Announce
edit
The initial stage of human history in archaeology
Archaeology means studying antiquities.In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the term "paleology" was used to refer to the study of ancient knowledge.Northern Song DynastyA study of bronzes and stone carvings came into being when——Epigraphy, the predecessor of Chinese archaeology.At this time, the words "Kao" and "Gu" began to be used together.1092be published in book formTextual Research on Ancient Bronze and Jade《Archaeological map》The term "archaeology" was first used.
Research object
Announce
edit
Egyptian archaeology
Archaeology studies objects, mainly material remains, or relics and remains.These remains should be left over from the activities of ancient humans.
Archaeological research focuses on the past, including various materials left over from the past culture.So its research object belongs to the ancient times before a certain time.
For example, the lower limit of British archaeology is the Norman invasion (1066), and France isCarolingian dynastyThe fall of,AmericaCountries areColumbus Discovered the New WorldIn 1492, China generally took the fall of the Ming Dynasty (1644) as the lower limit.The emergence of medieval archaeology in England pushed the time limit to 1640.And the American countriesIndustrial archaeologyIndustrial Archeology studies the relics of early modern industry.
With the advance of the times, these lower limits will naturally move backward.
chinese archeology
Announce
edit
China is the first country in the world to sprout archaeological ideas and publish monographs on antiquities.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period in the 4th century BC, people had vaguely understood the value of collecting antiquities, even in theLuoyangA "collection room" similar to today's museum has been built.
In the Qing Dynasty, there were a large number of classified works. In addition to the works on ancient gold and stone, there were also works on ancient gold and stoneAncient Coins , jades, ceramics, characters, etcAncient writingThe research results are particularly outstanding.
As European civilization entered the era of science, scientific and normative archaeology was born in Europe in the 19th century and then spread to China.1926 byLi JiHost, in ShanxiXiaxian CountyXiyin Village SiteIt is the first time that Chinese scholars have presided over the excavationfield archeology。
According to the time range of research, archaeology can be divided into prehistoric archaeology and historical archaeology.Some people also advocate the inclusion ofOriginal historyArchaeology has become the three major branches, but in practical sense, the importance of original history archaeology is not as important as the former two.
Prehistoric archaeology and historical archaeology
The research scope of prehistoric archaeology is the human history before words, while the research scope of historical archaeology is limited to the human history after literature records. The boundary between the two lies in the invention of words.Around the world, the invention of characters came as early as later, so the lower limit of the age of prehistoric archaeology and the upper limit of the age of historical archaeology vary from region to region.
Introduction to Archaeological Research
Both prehistoric archaeology and historical archaeology take remains and relics as research objects, which is the commonality between them.However, because historical archaeology must refer to literature records, while prehistoric archaeology has no literature records to provide basis, the research tasks of the two are also different.Prehistoric archaeology undertook the researchPrehistoric eraThe whole responsibility of human history, while historical archaeology can divide and cooperate with history, complement each other, and jointly explore the historical erahuman societyHistory of.
Because prehistoric archaeology mainly studiesPaleolithic AgeandNeolithic Age(Sometimes also includesBronze AgeAnd the early Iron Age), historical archaeology mainly studies the Bronze Age, especially the Iron Age. There are certain differences in the nature of the relics and relics studied by the two, so theirresearch methodThere are also differences.
In terms of the relationship with other disciplines, prehistoric archaeology should fully integrate geologyPaleontology、PaleoanthropologyandethnologyAnd other disciplines, while historical archaeology must cooperate with history and rely onAncient philology、Epigraphy、numismaticsAnd ancient architecture.
In terms of the means to determine the absolute age, prehistoric archaeology relies to a large extent on the technology of physical, chemical and other natural sciences, while historical archaeology mainly relies on the research of literature records and chronology.
Field Archaeology
Scope of study - burial
“field archeologyThe name "Xue" was formally put forward at the beginning of the 20th century.
At that time, field archaeology was mainly to investigate the remains and relics on the ground, relying on maps for investigation, and sometimes based on the investigation results,Mapping map, as an attachment to the record.Since then, field archaeology around the world has turned to excavation as the center, and expanded the objects and scope of investigation. The methods have gradually improved, and the technology has made rapid progress.Various means of natural science have been adopted, manymechanical equipmentIt is used as a tool for investigation and excavation.
The use of aerial photography and satellite photography, magnetic exploration and earth resistance exploration to find remains and relicsInfrared photographyAnd other special photographic techniques for surveying and mappingPollen analysisAnd variousphysical chemistrySampling according to the age, and preserving the excavated relics on the site, etcfaceExpand and strengthen the technology.
The objects of investigation and excavation have also expanded from general residential addresses and tombs to roads, bridges, ditchescanal, farmland, cities, ports, kilns, mines and other large areas of ruins, so that archaeologists must cooperate with experts in various disciplines to complete a comprehensive and comprehensive research task.
Archaeological research is a whole,FieldworkExcavation andIndoor finishingResearch is closely related and cannot be completely separated.Because the investigation and excavation work has a complete set of methodology, and also uses many special equipment and equipment, but also widely uses the means of natural science, which makes the field archaeology has its relative independence.It is also natural to regard it as an important branch of archaeology.
Special categories
As a branch of archaeology, special archaeology uses the name of special archaeology to distinguish it from the main branches of archaeology such as prehistoric archaeology, historical archaeology, field archaeology, etc.
It includes all kinds of branches other than the above three branches.Some are divided according to different research objects, such asArt archaeology、Religious archaeology, Ancient Coin Studies, Ancient Chinese Characters and Engraving Studies, etc;Some are classified according to the means and methods used, such asAeronautical archaeology、underwater archaeology Etc.
Art archaeology
Archaeology and Ancient TimesArt history, often with common information.Many objects of study in ancient art history, from cave murals and rock paintings in the Paleolithic Age to paintings, sculptures, statues, various handicrafts and shrines, temples andCave TempleAnd so on, all belong to relics and relics.
ArcheologicalTypologyAnd chronology are also applicable to the study of ancient art history.
Since the research object of art archaeology has been from the Paleolithic Age to various historical periods, it belongs to both prehistoric archaeology and prehistoric archaeologyHistorical archaeologyRange of.Because many of the fine arts as relics and relics were found in the field investigation, art archaeology andField Archaeology The relationship between.
Religious archaeology
Religious archaeology is a branch of archaeology that focuses on religious relics.in ancient times,religious beliefIt exists universally in human society.Therefore, when studying the history of human society, we mustreligious activities It is also an important aspect.Temples, temples, altars, sacrificial utensils, statues, muralsbuddhist textAnd symbols are the specific research objects of religious archaeology, some of which have certain artistic value, so religious archaeology andArt archaeologyThe relationship between.
In religious archaeology, European Christian archaeologyNorth Africaandwest AsiaandCentral AsiaIslamic archaeologySouth AsiaandEast AsiaBuddhist archaeology is the most important, they belong to the field of historical archaeology.However, as early as the Paleolithic andNeolithic AgeHuman beings have religious activities, and there are certain relics and relics.Therefore, religious archaeology should also be included in the field of prehistoric archaeology.
Archaeology, which takes ancient coins as the research object, is called ancient money science.Since the casting date of the ancient coins is clear, it has become one of the most common basis for dating in archaeology.However, as a branch of archaeology, the study of ancient money has more extensive and important significance.
The goal of the study of ancient coins is not only to determine the casting age of various ancient coins, but also to determine the shape, material, weight, inscription, pattern andFoundry technologyTo identify their issuer and place of issue, determine their value, study the meaning and style of inscriptions and patterns, and thusEconomic History, cultural history and even art history.
By investigating the geographical distribution of the unearthed ancient coins, we can also study the economic, trade and cultural exchanges in various regions of the world, and provide clues for judging the transportation routes at that time.Since ancient money is the product of historical times, ancient money science belongs to the scope of historical archaeology.
Ancient Chinese Characters and Engraving
As a branch of archaeology,Ancient writingThe research object of science and inscriptions must be the words cast, engraved or written on the relics and relics, which is different from the general books and documents.
The relics and relics containing words can be generally divided into two categories.Class I, such as epitaphs, steles, seals, oracle bones, bamboo slipsironing board, silk books, paper books, and so on;The other is memorial buildings, sculptures, paintings, coins, weighing instruments, mirrors, tools, weapons and various containers. Inscriptions are subordinate.
The task of ancient philology and epigraphy is to identify the characters of inscriptions, judge the meaning of sentences, and distinguish fonts in different times and regions. The latter is in usePinyin alphabetIt is called "ancient typography" in China.
The study of inscriptions can also determine the age, maker, owner, location, purpose and purpose of the relics and relics.As inscriptions exist on ruins and relics, their reliability is much higher than that of literature records, which can not only supplement the lack of literature records, but also sometimes correct their errors.Therefore, the study of ancient characters and inscriptions is of great significance to the study of original historical archaeology and historical archaeology.
Aeronautical archaeology
Aviation archaeology.It refers to the use of aircraft to take photos from the air to the ground, and to determine the shape, type and distribution of relics and relics through observation and analysis of the photos obtained.
Aerial archaeology beganthe First World WarEnd of.Archaeologists from Britain, France and Germany used the air force to scout the terrainAerial photographAnd explore the historic sites on the ground.The war is overLater, this work was further carried out, especially the work of British archaeologists, which laid the foundation of aviation archaeology.
For decades, the technology of aviation archaeology has been continuously improved, especiallyArtificial satelliteThe invention and development of photography technology have greatly improved the effect of aviation archaeology.adoptAerial photographyandAerospace photographyThe relics displayed and identified can be generally divided into three categories:
② Relics such as pits, trenches and roads can be distinguished by the light and shade of the soil due to different soil properties;
③ Such sites as villages, cities, farmland, roads, canals and so on can be identified from the difference of green depth of crops, weeds and other plants.
In addition, relics not in the sea can sometimes pass throughAerial photographyDiscovery;PhoeniciaTyre andSidonThe discovery of the port city that continued to the Roman period is a famous example.
Aerial archaeology has made great achievements, which can be regarded as a branch of field archaeologyFresh troops。
underwater archaeology
The germination of underwater archaeology can be traced back to the 16th century when Italians searched for sunken ships at the bottom of the sea.
In the early 20th century, underwaterarchaeological investigationIt is carried out all over the world, and the most famous one is inMexicoChichen ItzaLook for sacrificial people and offerings in the "Holy Pool" of Mayan cultural relicsTunisiaFull load of sea exploration in Mahdiya Portancient GreekThe Roman shipwreck of art.However, due to the limitation of diving conditions, detailed operations and records cannot be made during the investigation.
In 1943, he invented the diving lung,the Second World WarLater, the equipment and conditions in various aspects were improved, which made the real underwater archaeology possible.
Since the 1960s, the French haveMarseilleThe sunken ship was excavated near the sea bottom, and then the American archaeological teamturkeyGreece excavated near the seabedRoman timesAnd the sunken ships in the late Bronze Age, not only obtained many antiquities in the ship, but also for the study of ancient shipbuildingNavigationMaritime traffic and trade provide important new information.
Underwater archaeologyThe objects of the project have expanded from sunken objects and ships to the ruins of cities and port cities submerged at the bottom of lakes and in the sea, and the means and methods of survey, excavation and photographic recording have also been greatly improved, making underwater archaeology achieve continuous results at a remarkable speed.It can be considered that underwater archaeology is the extension of field archaeology in waters.
Other branches
In addition to the main branches mentioned above, archaeology can also be divided into "European archaeology", "Egyptian archaeology"“Chinese archaeology ”And "Japanese archaeology", and archaeology in different regions can be divided into "classical archaeology" (Greek and Roman archaeology), "Shang and Zhou archaeology" and many other branches according to different times.
Discipline connection
Announce
edit
Archaeology is a science involving a wide range of subjects, and it is related to many other disciplines. It must be supported and assisted by these disciplines to complete various research tasks.
In natural science,physical geography、geology、meteorologyAnd ecology, mainly to help study theGeohistoryAnd natural resources to restore thenatural environment。Biology (zoology and botany) andPhysical anthropologyIt is mainly used to identify the unearthed plant remains, animal and human bones, and determine their age.Physics and chemistry are applied to the exploration of relics, the analysis of the composition and nature of relics, and the determination of their age.
Engineering technology
In engineering technology science, architecture andCivil EngineeringIt is used to excavate, survey and map the ruins, restore the excavated relics or preserve them on site.miningMetallurgyCeramics and dyeing and weaving are applied to the investigation of industrial sites, mining sites, kiln sites and other relicsCeramic ware、Glassware, textiles and other relics.Shipbuilding is specially used to investigate and study the excavated shipyard sites and ship relics.
Humanities and society
In the humanitiessocial sciencesIn terms of ethnologyfolklore, linguisticshuman geographySociologyReligion, economics, political science, and law are all concerned with the research and interpretation of the materials provided by relics and relics related to each discipline.
Art history and architectural history mainly study the excavated art works and various architectural remains, and make judgments and explanations on their style, style, age, architectural technology and preservation.
In addition to providing documentary explanations and helping to judge the age of various excavated relics and remains, history also extensively studies the ancientpolitical organization 、social structure、economic systemAs well as various issues related to spiritual and cultural aspects, provide information on the literature and make detailed explanations to make up for the shortcomings and deficiencies of ancient studies in these aspects.
Research age
Announce
edit
Archaeology is an integral part of historical science in China.However, the scope of archaeological research in various countries ishuman activitySince the ancient historical period, its upper limit is the emergence of human beings, and archaeology in all countries has their lower limit.For example, the lower limit of British archaeology is the Norman invasion (1066), the lower limit of French archaeology is the collapse of the Carolingian dynasty (987), and the lower limit of American archaeology is the discovery of the New World by C. Columbus (about 1451-1506) (1492).
Generally speaking, the lower limit of the age of Chinese archaeology can be set at the end of the Ming Dynasty (1644).
In recent years, there has been "medieval archaeology" in Britain, whose lower limit extends tobourgeois revolutionThe beginning of (1640);There is also the so-called "industrial archaeology", whose lower limit extends to the 18th and 19th centuriesindustrial revolutionInitial stage.In the Americas, there are so-called "historical archaeology" or "colonial era archaeology". Their age range is from the discovery of America by Columbus to the political independence of the American countries at the end of the 18th century or the beginning of the 19th century.However, the so-called "industrial archaeology" in Britain, the so-called "historical archaeology" or "colonial era archaeology" in America are actually using archaeological methods to study modern history, so they cannot be regarded as real archaeology.
On the contrary, some people limit the scope of archaeology toPrehistoric eraThat is, ancient times without written records.In this way, a lot ofcountry with an ancient civilizationIt is also inappropriate to exclude the historical era of.It must be affirmed that archaeology does not study modern and contemporary times, but ancient times.However, in addition to prehistoric times, the "ancient times" studied by archaeology should also includePrimitive eraAnd historical times.
As far as Chinese archaeology is concerned, the historical era not only refers to the Shang Dynasty and the Zhou Dynasty, but also includesQin and Han DynastiesAnd later generations;It is wrong to say that "in ancient times, we did not take the examination of three generations or less".Of course, the older the history, the fewer written records, and the more significant the importance of archaeological research.It is necessary to find out the prehistoric times without written recordsSocial historyTherefore, prehistoric archaeology and prehistoric history are equivalent.
AsPhysical dataThe object of archaeological research is material objects.Some people value only one word "ancient", thinking that as long as it is used to research ancient things, it can be regarded as archaeology, whether based on literature or material materials.In fact, the object of archaeological research is material remains, that is, ancient ruins and relics.This is the most important difference between it and the narrow sense history which relies on literature records to study human history.
Archaeology and history are the two main components of historical science (history in broad sense), just like two wheels of a car, they cannot be neglected.However, although they are closely related, they are independent.They all belong to the science of "time", with the goal of studying the history of ancient human society. However, the materials used are quite different, so the methods used are also different.Some people call the narrow sense history that relies on literature to study ancient human history as archaeology, which does not conform to the basic meaning of modern archaeology.
As the object of archaeological research, the real object should be left over by ancient human beings through various activities and processed consciously by human beings.If it is a natural object without human processing, it must be related to or able to reflect human activities.This shows that archaeology belongs tohumanitiesAlthough we must make full use of the techniques and methods of various natural sciences in the research of archaeology.[2]
Discipline Theory
Announce
edit
Archaeological purpose
Without archaeology, people could not understand human evolution.Archaeology aims to learn more about the past society and human development.More than 99% of human history isprehistoryAt that time, people did not use words, so they did not leave written records about themselves for people to study.In the absence of such writing resources, understandprehistoric society The only way is archaeology.A lot aboutHuman historyMajor developments in prehistory, includingPaleolithic AgeHuman evolution occurred at that timeAfrica, the human race developed from Australopithecus ape man, and finally became the contemporary Homo sapiens.
Archaeology also finds out many information about the evolution of human technology, such as the ability to use fire, the development of stone tools, the invention of ironmaking, the source of religion, and the creation of agriculture.Without archaeology, people could not understand the evolution andTechnological change。[2]
Discipline objectives
① Discover, excavate, record and protect the material remains of past human beings, and reveal their location and relationship in time and space, including the material background of their existence;
② Reconstruction of human behavior and lifestyle represented by specific time, specific place and specific ancient relics;
③ Establish the chronological sequence of ancient remains, and then establish thecultural history；
archaeologistNot all of them conform to the same set of archaeological theoretical orientation.When archaeology began to develop in the late 19th century, the first theoretical orientation of archaeology was cultural history archaeology, which had the goal of explaining why culture changed and adjusted, rather than just emphasizing the fact that these cultures had once produced, so it emphasized the theory of historical particularities.
In the early 20th century, many archaeologists studied the relationship betweenNative American 、SiberiaPeopleCentral AmericaHuman society), they follow the direct historical orientation and compare theContinuity。
In the 1960s, an archaeological movement led by American archaeologists such as Bingfo and Funery opposed the well-established cultural history archaeology at that time.They proposed a more scientific and anthropological“new archaeology ”, with hypothesis testing andscientific method, which was later called process archaeology.
In the 1980s, a newPostmodernCampaign, led by British archaeologists, including Michael ShanksChristopher Tilley、Daniel Miller、And Ian Hodder, which later became known asPost process archaeology。It questions the process of sciencePositivismAndfairnessAnd emphasizes the theoretical reflection of self-criticism.
However, post process doctrine is criticized by process doctrine as lacking scientific enthusiasm, and scholars still argue between process doctrine and post process doctrineEffectiveness。At the same time, another theory "historyProcess theory”(historical processing), seeking to integrate a focus on the reflection and history emphasized by process and post process archaeology.
Today's archaeological theory borrows from a wide range of theoretical ideas, including evolution, phenomenology, postmodernism, structure and activity, cognitive archaeologyFunctional schoolGender archaeology andFeminismArchaeology, and Archaeologysystem theory Etc.[2]
