Imperial examination system

Examination system for selecting officials in ancient times

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The imperial examination system was passed in ancient China examination selection Official System.^{[93 ]}

The imperial examination started in the Han Dynasty, the Sui Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty. The mainstream view is that the Sui Dynasty started the imperial examination and the Tang Dynasty inherited and improved it^{[93-94 ]} ）The last imperial examination in the world ended in Vietnam in 1919 Ruan Dynasty ）^[1] It has experienced more than 1200 years.^[2] The main examinations of the imperial examination system were held regularly. The imperial examination was held once a year in the Tang Dynasty and the early Song Dynasty. During the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Song Dynasty, the imperial examination was held once every one or two years. In the third year of Emperor Yingzong's reign (1066), the imperial examination was held once every three years.^[3-5]

The imperial examination is usually divided into local provincial examination, central provincial examination and palace examination. The first place in the local examination is“ Solution ”, the central provincial trial is“ Provincial yuan ”, the first place in the palace examination is“ No. 1 Scholar ”。^[6-7]

The imperial examination of the Tang Dynasty included many subjects, such as scholar, Ming Jing, Junshi, Jinshi, Ming Fa (law), Ming Zi, Ming Suan (mathematics), etc. The content of the examination was sometimes policy, scripture, essays, etc.^[6]^[8] The imperial examination of the Song Dynasty included Jinshi and Mingjing subjects, and the contents of the examination included Sutra Sutra, Moyi and Shifu. Wang Anshi was appointed as an intellectual and political advisor after the event, and abolished Shifu, Sutra Sutra and Moyi to select scholars based on classics, theories and strategies. The imperial examination of the Ming and Qing dynasties was changed to eight part essay.^[9-10]

The imperial examination system is considered to be feudalistic age The fairest form of talent selection that can be adopted^[87] It enables scholars from the middle and lower classes of society to participate in the political power through relatively fair examinations, expanding the basis of governance, improving the cultural quality of officials, and strengthening the centralization of power.^{[94 ]} However, after the Song Dynasty, the passivity of the imperial examination became increasingly prominent.^{[11 ]} In addition, ancient Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other countries with close communication with China were also deeply influenced by the imperial examination system.

Chinese name: Imperial examination system
Foreign name: Imperial examination（English）

Alias: imperial examination
start time: Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties^{[93-94 ]} (The mainstream view is that the Sui Dynasty created it, and the Tang Dynasty inherited and improved it)
End time in China: 1905^[57]

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historical background

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Zhou dynasty In the way of "township election", namely“ official rank in the Zhou and Han dynasties ”（ Patriarch ）And so on Sage After paying tribute to the local governor, it goes directly to the central government. The sages who pay tribute to the king will be tested by the king himself. The content is archery. In the society before the Zhou Dynasty, only the members of the ruling group family could be educated and become intellectuals. In fact, the various components of the state institutions were mainly composed of the members of the ruling group hereditary Possession is embodied in the system of "Shi Qing Shi Lu" in the Zhou Dynasty. Under this system, even if there is some kind of recommendation and selection, it basically does not exceed Patriarchal clan system The scope of the family. Recommendation and selection exceed heredity blood kinship It can only be a very accidental exception that those who rise to the top due to the snare of relationships. reach the Spring and Autumn period ，“ falling of ceremony ”， Shiqing Shilu System Seriously damaged, some lower class people who were not aristocrats were appointed exceptionally, and more and more talents were selected through recommendation and assessment. The bureaucratic system of appointment based on recommendation and assessment (and promotion based on performance) gradually came into being. At that time, the development of social economy and the expansion of culture and education accelerated this process.^[12]

here we are Han Dynasty The way to promote folk talents is Procuratorial system And Requisition system 。 In the eleventh year of Emperor Gaozu (197 BC), Liu Bang issued an edict to order officials at all levels to recommend talents, forming the initial form of rural tribute in later generations. In the second year (178 B.C.) and the fifteenth year (165 B.C.) of Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, officials at all levels were ordered to recommend "those who are capable of giving outspoken advice", and the recommended persons were examined by questioning.^[13-14] Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty scholar-statesman instrumental in institutionalizing Confucianism and civil-service examinations The proposal of dutiful son 、 Incorruptible officials One person each. Later, the two departments gradually merged into one department, called“ Filial piety ”。 In addition, "scholar" is also one of the important subjects of the examination. Virtue is the key to filial piety, and talent is the key to talent. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, it was changed to "Mao Cai" in order to avoid Liu Xiu. In the Tang and Song Dynasties, scholars were generally referred to as general candidates for study, while in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, students who passed the elementary "county examination" were specifically referred to as scholars. In the Han Dynasty, all subjects were examined and passed the imperial examinations. However, the important difference between the imperial examination of Han Dynasty and that of later generations is that the examination is not important in the imperial examination, but recommendation is decisive. The examination is mainly recommendation, supplemented by examination, and the examination basically does not exist Dethrone "At that time, there was no dethroned law, and all countermeasures were selected"^[15] 。 The power of recommendation is in the hands of bureaucrats at all levels below the emperor.^[16] Chaju was not the biggest channel for officials to enter the Han Dynasty. Since the beginning of the Han Dynasty, "Ren Zi", "Cai Xuan", and the direct calling of the emperor and officials at all levels have still been carried out. Generally, scholars were first recruited as officials of prefectures and counties, and then their superiors inspected and elected as scholars, filial piety and incorruptibility to the Central Committee. However, there is almost no possibility that civilians in civilian clothes who have no access will be prosecuted.^[17]

Emperor Han Shun In the first year of Yangjia (132), the order of minister was adopted Zuo Xiong It is suggested to reform the procuratorial examination system, stipulate that the procuratorial examination of filial piety and integrity should first pass the examination, and establish a separate subject examination system, Confucian scholars investigated Confucian classics, and civil officials investigated Zhang Zuo, "no different from the method of imperial examinations in later generations",^[98] Historical title“ Yangjia New System ”, gave birth to the seeds of the imperial examination system in later generations, It laid the foundation for the emergence of the imperial examination system.^{[99 ]}

Emperor Wei Wen When, Chen Qun found Nine-rank system The private talents are assessed by specific officials according to their origin and moral character, and are divided into nine grades for recruitment. This system was used in the Western Jin Dynasty and the Six Dynasties. The ninth grade is the improvement of procuratorial examination, which is mainly to change the procuratorial examination from local officials to appointed officials. However, in the Wei and Jin dynasties, the gentry were powerful, often influencing the assessment of talents by middle and official officials. Later, they even relied only on the criteria of family background. As a result, the phenomenon that "the top grade is free from hardship, and the bottom grade is free from gentry" is caused. It not only blocked the use of materials from the folk, but also allowed the gentry to control the use of materials from the imperial court.^[18-19]

stay Southern Dynasties Homochronous, scholar At the beginning of the examination, the department had a clear stipulation that "five questions (qualified) should be the top, four and three should be the middle, two should be the bottom, and one should not be the first."^[20] The exam scores are divided into four grades: top, middle, bottom and fail. Those who fail "fail to pass the exam" will not be accepted Delegating official 。 This shows that the exam is much more rigorous than before. During the Southern Dynasties, Emperor Liang Wu Set up the Five Classics Hall in Jiankang, and give it to officials if they pass the exam. Scholars from poor families from all over the country have taken part in schools. The examination method is as follows: "Those who are able to pass the exam and are tireless from beginning to end will be selected and recorded after practical measures are taken. Although they have returned to cattle and sheep shops, cold products and back doors, and try officials with talent, there should be no gaps.".^[21] ”It has clearly put forward the regulations on the recruitment of the children of poor families regardless of their origin.

stay Northern Dynasties ， Northern Wei Dynasty 、 Beiqi "All the prefectures and counties are in the right place. In the way of class examination, the emperor always wears clothes, goes out by the public opinion, sits on the front of the imperial court, and each shows filial piety is paired with a class of grass. If there is a misprint in the characters, call to stand behind the table; if there is a bad book, drink a liter of ink; if there is a Meng Lang in literature and science, grab the seat and take off the knife."^[20] (Zhongzheng was set up in all prefectures and counties, and officials from the three departments of Zhongshu, Jishu, and Kaogonglang assessed the talent, Gongshi, and Lianliang respectively.) It can be seen that the examination methods of the Northern Dynasty at that time had been implemented in different disciplines and supervised the examination room, and unqualified candidates were dismissed on the spot.^[3]

development history

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There is a dispute in the history circle about the time when the imperial examination system was first established, and there are many explanations in the Han, Sui, and Tang dynasties.

Some historians believe that the imperial examination system began in the Sui Dynasty on the grounds that there was a division of the imperial examination system and the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty.^[22] Some historians have verified that the imperial examination system began in the Han Dynasty, proving that the Han Dynasty not only had a division of subjects to select people, according to the imperial examination, but also had examinations to use, and there was no reliable evidence to prove that the Sui Dynasty had Jinshi Branch.^[23] Some historians have proved that the essence of the imperial examination system was that they were allowed to apply for it since the Tang Dynasty high-ranking officials Minister or State and county The imperial examination system began in the Tang Dynasty.^[3]^[24-26]

Han dynasty

Some historians have verified that the imperial examination system was born in the Han Dynasty, Xu Lianda 、 Lou Jin It was pointed out that people who believed that the imperial examination began in the Sui Dynasty often began with the imperial edict of the Sui Dynasty, "five or more officials in the capital, and chief executives and provincial governors, and two officials in the Qingping Ganji", but this edict was basically the same as the imperial edict of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, "three people in the Qingping were selected respectively from the ranks of military officers above Kaifu, officials above junior officials, and foreign officials above provincial governors.", It is also the same as the imperial edicts of the past dynasties since the second year of Emperor Wen of the Western Han Dynasty (178 BC). Another person said that the imperial examination system began in the Sui Dynasty, with Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty setting the Jinshi Section as one of the disciplines. However, those who believed that the imperial examination system began in the Han Dynasty pointed out that the imperial examination system was a complete set of systems of "selecting people according to different subjects and applying them through examinations". In the Han Dynasty, there were many subjects, such as scholar (Mao Cai), Ming Jing, Ming Fa, virtuous and upright, filial piety and incorruptibility. The Han Dynasty's countermeasures and examinations were examinations, so some scholars believed that the imperial examination system began in the Han Dynasty.^[23]

As for the new Jinshike in the Sui and Tang Dynasties, its name came from《 Zhou Rites 》, people in the Han and Wei dynasties had already paid tribute to the imperial court Filial piety Compare it to the habit of "Jinshi". So Sui set Jinshike It is just a comparison of the ancient system and listing the names of scholars. It is completely subordinate to the whole subject system since the Han Dynasty, which is the same as the name of scholar and virtuous person.^[23] According to the literature of the Tang Dynasty and the Five Dynasties, there were six Jinshi of the Sui Dynasty, including Yang Zai. But after textual research, except for Yang Zai's Jinshi identity, which was impossible to check due to the lack of literature, the other five people were either unsubstantiated, or compared the Sui Dynasty to the ancient system scholar 、 person well versed in Chinese classics The imperial inspector was elected as an official, which was compared to the imperial scholar Kedengdi.^[24]

Sui dynasty

After the establishment of the Sui Dynasty, the system of nine grades in the middle was abolished, and officials were selected by dividing subjects and selecting people^{[94-95 ]} 。 In the 28th year of the Republic of China (1939), Zhou Gucheng said, "The imperial examination system was founded in the era of Emperor Yangdi of the Sui Dynasty." Guan Shouquan said, "The imperial examination means to select talents according to different subjects." But other historians pointed out that the Han Dynasty had already selected scholars according to different subjects, and selected talents according to different subjects.^[24] The textbook "Outline of Chinese and Foreign History (I)" or "Da Cihai" in middle school regards the establishment of Jinshi Branch in the Sui Dynasty as the beginning of the imperial examination system^{[93-94 ]} 。 Three years of Daye (607), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty There are ten categories for selecting talents, including the category of "literary talent and beauty", which is the beginning of the imperial examination system (mainly the imperial examination system). Some people who hold the view of the birth of the Sui Dynasty believe that the Jinshike was established during the Daye period (605-618 years), while others believe that it was established in the seventh year of the Kaihuang period (587 years).

The method of selecting officials in the Sui Dynasty was a continuation of the method of organizing separate scientific surveys in the Han Dynasty. In the 18th year of Emperor Kaihuang (598), Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty ordered the tributes from Zhuzhou to be recommended according to their aspirations, and in the third year of Daye (607), Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty ordered the recommendation of the tributes, which was divided into ten branches. In the fifth year of Daye's reign (609), Zhuzhou was ordered to recommend people, which was divided into four sections. In the Sui Dynasty, there was no way to ask for refuge. Although there is a saying that "Emperor Yang first set up the division of Jinshi", and the Sui Dynasty "set up two divisions of Jinshi and Ming Jing". However, according to historical data, Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty and Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty recorded in their edicts that there were no Jinshi or Ming Jing subjects among the second, ten and four subjects of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty. As for the method of branch recommendation, it did not start in the Sui Dynasty. The procuratorial examinations in the Han Dynasty have been divided into different subjects and planned. Moreover, even if there were subjects equivalent to Jinshi in the Sui Dynasty, it could not be said that this was the imperial examination system. Because, compared with the previous official selection system, the most important characteristics of the imperial examination system are: first, the imperial examination system responds to the ultimatum, and scholars can register for the examination by themselves, without having to be recommended by officials; 2、 The examination is held regularly; 3、 Exam strictly. The system of selecting officials in the Sui Dynasty did not have the above three characteristics. The imperial edicts of Emperor Wen and Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty both indicated that the scholars who took part in the election of officials still had to get the top officials first Recommendation The system does not give them the right to vote for themselves. There were three separate elections in the Sui Dynasty, all held by the emperor's temporary edict, and there was no system for holding regular elections. As for the imperial edict about three people who paid tribute to each state in the seventh year of Emperor Kaihuang's reign (587), it was the same as that in the Han Dynasty when the states and counties paid tribute to the imperial court every year. The number of people was small and the examination was not important, which was different from the national examination held regularly in the Tang and Song Dynasties. If the above three points are not taken as the symbols of the imperial examination system, the imperial examination system in the Han Dynasty is also the imperial examination system. Therefore, we can only confirm that the imperial examination system came into being in the Tang Dynasty, not in the Sui Dynasty.^[28]

Tang dynasty

The historians Yu Jue, Tang Changru and He Zhongli, Jin Zheng, who studied the imperial examination system, pointed out that the Tang Dynasty created the imperial examination.^[3]^[24]^[27]

Yu Outline had some doubts about the imperial examination system in the Sui Dynasty It is a valuable insight that it is the main symbol of the origin of the imperial examination system. Tang Changru put forward a similar view to Yu's outline. He believed that the important feature of the imperial examination system in the Tang Dynasty was whether it was "allowed to accept an ultimatum for self examination". In the later period of the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were cases of scholars "accepting an ultimatum for self examination", which reflected that the imperial examination system was in the bud at that time.^[27]

In the 1980s, some scholars wrote that to determine when the imperial examination system originated, we must first grasp its special nature different from other official selection systems, that is, to solve the problem of what the imperial examination is. He Zhongli, a historian specializing in the imperial examination system, denied that there were Jinshi and Jinshi examinations in the Sui Dynasty for two reasons. First, he studied Sui Shu and the documents of the Sui Dynasty. Although he recorded many names of the imperial examinations, he did not find the name of Jinshi, nor did he find the truth of Jinshi examinations; Second, there are six Jinshi of Sui Dynasty recorded in the literature of Tang and Five Dynasties, including Fang Xuanling, Wen Yanbo, Hou Junsu, Sun Fujia, Zhang Bozhi, and Yang Zai. However, after textual research, except Yang Zai's Jinshi identity, which is impossible to investigate due to the lack of literature, the other five people are either unsubstantiated, or use the time system as a metaphor for the ancient system, and use the scholar and Ming classics as officials in the Sui Dynasty to compare them to Jinshi Kedengdi, Although there are records that Jinshike was founded in the Sui Dynasty in the Tang Dynasty, there are also records that Jinshike was founded in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, he pointed out that the procuratorate system was still implemented in the Sui Dynasty, and the Jinshike also originated in the Tang Dynasty.^[24]

He Zhongli pointed out in his Differentiation of the Origin of the Imperial Examination System -- Also on the Imperial Examination System was first created in the Tang Dynasty that, when reviewing the imperial examination system in the whole feudal society, three characteristics can be basically summarized: first, scholars should be elected, and in principle, they are allowed to "make progress by giving an ultimatum", which does not have to be specifically recommended by the minister or the prefectural officials. This should be the main feature of the imperial examination system, and also the most fundamental difference from the procuratorial examination system; Second, "everything depends on Cheng Wen". In other words, the selection and dismissal must be determined through strict examination; Third, take the Jinshi Section as the main subject of selecting candidates, and scholars will go to the exam regularly. Through various argumentations, it is believed that although the "ultimatum advancing by itself" and the "examination eliminating method" in the above characteristics have shown signs in the late Southern and Northern Dynasties, they officially appeared in the Tang Dynasty. Although the Sui Dynasty abolished the nine grade system, the procuratorial system was still implemented. As for the statement that there was Jinshike in the Sui Dynasty in the historical records, there was no evidence. Therefore, the imperial examination system was formally formed not in the Sui Dynasty but in the Tang Dynasty.^[24]

In the fourth year of Wude (621) of Emperor Gaozu of the Tang Dynasty, the imperial edict "Scholars from all over the country should have the Ming and scholar 、 A handsome man Jinshi, who was named by the local people in the Ming Dynasty, appointed the county to take the exam, and the governor repeated it. He passed the exam, and paid tribute with things every October. The imperial edict of the Tang Dynasty in the fifth year of Wude (622) made it clear that the scholars could "serve themselves by throwing dishes", that the poor men at the lower level could not be recommended "also listen to the self promotion", and that "clean oneself and enter the court without suspicion"^[29] Since then, the system of "self promotion" and "self advancement" of scholars has been formally established. The imperial edict in the fifth year of Emperor Gaozu's Wude in the Tang Dynasty (622) marked the birth of the imperial examination system characterized by self examination.^[26]

development

Since the Han Dynasty, court elections have been held mainly through irregular imperial edicts issued by the emperor. In the Tang Dynasty, there was a system of regular examinations every year, and at the same time, the method of temporarily issuing imperial edicts to take examinations was also retained, that is, the so-called "system of examinations". “ system ”The significance of“ Imperial edict ”The same is the order of the emperor. The imperial examinations held every year are called "regular subjects".^[30]

Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty attached great importance to the cultivation and selection of talents. After his accession to the throne, he greatly expanded the scale of the college, expanded the school buildings and increased the number of students.^[31-32]

subject

Permanent subjects include scholar 、 person well versed in Chinese classics 、 A handsome man , Jinshi Explicit law 、 Mingzi 、 Clear calculation 、 History 、 three histories , Kaiyuan ceremony, Daoju, etc. The Tang Dynasty had a very high demand for scholars. As a result, few scholars took the exam, and soon the scholar division was abolished. Since then, "scholar" has become a general term for general candidates for study. Ming Jing and Jinshi attracted the most examinees in the imperial examination in the Tang Dynasty.^[3]

The Ming Classics originated in the Han Dynasty. In the Tang Dynasty, the "Ming Classics" section examined various Confucian classics, including《 Laozi 》。 The Ming Dynasty Classics is not a complete examination of more than ten Confucian classics, but is divided into four levels: the Ming Dynasty First Classics, the Ming Dynasty Second Classics, the Ming Dynasty Third Classics, and the Ming Dynasty Fifth Classics. In the 25th year of the Kaiyuan era (737) of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, the examination of the Ming Dynasty was added Current affairs and policies The examiner asks questions about current affairs, and the candidates answer in writing. Among the imperial examinations in the Tang Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty had the most scholars. But the most honorable one is Jinshike. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, the imperial examinations were five "current policies". The current policy involves the country's practical problems, so that scholars can get up from the stack of old papers, face the society, observe and think about problems, and propose solutions. In the second year of Emperor Gaozong's Diaolu in the Tang Dynasty (680), the Jinshike was invited to test the scriptures and essays. (This essay generally refers to poems, fu, proverbs, inscriptions, tables, praises, etc., as well as the literary talents of candidates.)^[3]

In the Tang Dynasty Martial arts examination 。 The martial arts examination began in the second year of Chang'an (702) of Empress Wu Zetian. The candidates who should take the martial arts examination come from the village tribute, and the Ministry of War takes the exam. The examination subjects include long-range shooting, horse shooting, foot shooting, flat shooting, barrel shooting, horse gun, wrestling, weight lifting, etc.^[33]

During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, poetry and fu became the main examination content of the Jinshike. During his tenure, he interviewed imperial examination candidates in Chang'an and Luoyang palaces eight times in person, and admitted many talented people.

There were more than one hundred systematic subjects in the Tang Dynasty, such as“ the virtuous Founder can Outspoken Extreme remonstrance ”"The military is ambitious and worthy of being a general", etc. The candidates for the system examination can be civilians or those who have passed the imperial examination. The current or dismissed officials can also participate.^[30]

Examination process

The imperial examination of the Tang Dynasty is held every spring in Shangshu Province, Chang'an, capital“ provincial examination ”。 The "hair and solution test" of the local township government officials was held in the autumn of the first year. Since then, the local "autumn test" (autumn test) and the Beijing "spring test" (spring test) have become the customization of the imperial examination in the past dynasties.^[75]

The candidates for the imperial examination in the Tang Dynasty were mainly composed of two parts, namely "living disciples" and "local tribute". Students are students of official schools. Township Tribute means that people from all over the country learn by themselves or in private schools, go to counties and prefectures to take the exam, pass the local exam, and then go to Beijing Normal University to take the exam. The special food and tax products that Xiang Gong pays tribute to the capital everywhere in October every year are sent to the imperial court together, which is called "Fajie". The first name of the state/county pre test is "Jieyuan".^[3]

Various official schools in the Tang Dynasty included Guozi School, Taixue School, Simen School, etc. In addition, there were also special schools of law, arithmetic, calligraphy, etc. In the Tang Dynasty, there were government schools, prefectural schools, county schools, etc.^[74]

In the early Tang Dynasty, the official department of Shangshu Province was in charge of the imperial examination. During the Kaiyuan period of Emperor Xuanzong, the Ministry of Rites was changed to be in charge of it. Since then, successive dynasties have remained the same. The Ministry of Rites has a tribute court, where examinations, examination papers, and announcements are held. The official who presided over the imperial examination was called "Zhigong Ju", and the minister of the Ministry of Rites usually served concurrently. The imperial examinations in the Tang Dynasty were usually released in February. Those who have been admitted are called "He He", or are admitted to the imperial examination, the first place, promoted to the first place, etc. The first name is No. 1 Scholar.^[75]

After the release of the list, the new candidates have a variety of festive banquets and polo games, such as the Hear the Joy Banquet, the Cherry Banquet, the Qujiang Banquet, the Moon Lantern Pavilion Ball Banquet, the Customs Banquet, and the Wild Goose Pagoda Nomination... Public and private parties are also willing to contribute generously to these festive banquets.^[75]

At the ball game banquet in the Yuedeng Pavilion, the new scholars gathered in the Yuedeng Pavilion to play polo. They rode with sticks, galloped and stroked, and the wind was fleeting. Looking around at the tents, the audience was like a mountain. "Because of this, they would shout and laugh for a long time." "After stroking and stroking, they would drink on the Buddha Pavilion." We can see the temperament and demeanor of the scholars in the Tang Dynasty, as well as the enlightened social practices at that time.^[75]

The Ministry of Civil Servants is responsible for appointing officials, so those who pass the imperial examination will also accept the Ministry of Civil Servants' examination, commonly known as "Guan Examination". After the civil service examination of the Ministry of Officials was completed, all the subjects were subordinate to the Ministry of Officials and were waiting for official posts. Those who are eager to win the official position can take the "learned great words" and "excellent book judgment" examinations of the Ministry of Officials, which are called "great words" and "excellent" for short. Those who pass the examinations will be awarded the official position immediately. Liu Zongyuan and Bai Juyi were the Jinshi and the later, who were awarded officials respectively for their excellent words.^[75]

Enlightened, the imperial examination in the Tang Dynasty allowed civilians and poor people to participate.

The imperial examinations of the Tang Dynasty were open to the whole society, regardless of age, and indeed absorbed many poor scholars into the political power. Duan Wenchang, the prime minister of Wenzong in the Tang Dynasty, and Wang Bo were both poor men. In their early years, they could not even eat and begged people for food. They all entered the imperial examinations and became officials. When these poor men became prominent, they attracted more of the same kind, such as Li Xun and Li Jian, who were "from poor families", and were promoted to high positions. In the 11th year of Yuanhe (816), Li Jianzhi paid tribute to the government, and "all 33 people took the cold element".^[30]

reform

The banquet held for students to celebrate after the imperial examination was released was called Wenxi banquet in the Tang Dynasty, the Five Dynasties and the early Song Dynasty. It was held in Qionglin Garden since the eighth year of Taiping and Xingguo (983) of Emperor Taizong of the Song Dynasty, so this banquet is also called "Qionglin banquet".^[34-37]

The imperial examination in the Song Dynasty has undergone significant changes in form and content.

The imperial examination in the Song Dynasty broadened the scope of admission and function. Scholars in the Song Dynasty were divided into three classes: the first class was called Jinshihe; The second class is called Jinshi origin; The third class was granted the same Jinshi background.

There were two levels of imperial examinations in the Tang Dynasty (namely, the examination of local prefectures and counties and the provincial examination of the Ministry of Rites of the Central Shangshu Province), which were inherited in the early Song Dynasty. After the sixth year of Kaibao (973), the Song Dynasty turned the Emperor's visit to the palace examination into a customized one. Since the Tang Dynasty, the first place in the state and county examinations has been called "Jieyuan". The first place in the central provincial examination was renamed "Shengyuan" in the Song Dynasty, and the first place in the palace examination was called "No. 1 Scholar". "Lianzhong Sanyuan" was called the highest aspiration of scholars in the imperial examination era. During the palace examination, the emperor generally did not check the examination papers in person, but in fact they were still reviewed by the examiners. The top candidates selected by the examiners shall be presented to the emperor for "viewing". After the emperor controlled the final pass of the imperial examination - "palace examination", the new Jinshi became“ Son of Heaven students ”。^[76]

Sealed Transcript It was the most important reform of the imperial examination system in the Northern Song Dynasty. Mifeng is to paste the examinee's name, native place and other records on the examination paper, which is also called "paste name". The method of pasting names first appeared in the Tang Dynasty. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, when the Ministry of Officials interpreted and tried to teach officials, they tried to use the method of pasting names for examination. In the third year of Guangshun of the later Zhou Dynasty (953), Zhigong Zhao handed in his name for the first time in the Jinshi examination by means of pasting his name.^[76]

After the candidate's name is sealed, the examiner can still recognize his handwriting. In the eighth year of Dazhong Xiangfu's reign (1015), a transcription institute was set up. All the palace examination papers were transcribed by specially assigned persons, and then examined by the examiners. Since then, the provincial examination and the release and interpretation of the examination papers have also been carried out successively. In addition, the Northern Song Dynasty further strengthened the discipline of the examination field, implemented strict laws and regulations on body searching, listed the internal soldiers and guards, and patrolled and monitored. In the Northern Song Dynasty, it was very popular to give up children to take cheating with them. The Northern Song Dynasty tried to stop all kinds of corrupt people in the power sector, so it was natural to take examination discipline seriously.^[76]

These systems have indeed produced great effectiveness in preventing the examiners from favoritism. However, in the late Northern Song Dynasty, this method became a mere formality. The change of examination form in the Song Dynasty did not eliminate the chronic disease of the imperial examination, but made it worse.^[78]

The imperial examinations in the Northern Song Dynasty were initially held every year, but with the implementation of the imperial examinations, such as mifeng, transcribing, and increasing palace examinations, the workload of organization preparation and personnel arrangement for each examination was greatly increased. If the examinations were held every year, the central and local governments would be exhausted. Therefore, the imperial examination has not been held every year since Emperor Taizong of the Song Dynasty. In the third year of the reign of Emperor Yingzong of the Song Dynasty (1066), the imperial examination was officially held every three years.^[3] Every autumn, each state will take the exam, and the next spring, the Ritual Department will take the exam. The provincial palace examination was held in the same year.

In the Song Dynasty, the emperor will also hold a ceremony to announce the rank of candidates.^[38-39]

The imperial examination in the Song Dynasty also made great changes in the content of the examination. The Song Dynasty strengthened the position and importance of strategy and theory in the imperial examination.^[77] In the fourth year of Xining (1071), Emperor Shenzong of Song Dynasty and Wang Anshi formally carried out the reform of the imperial examination: the imperial examination only set up a division of Jinshi, and the original disciplines such as the Ming classics and scholars (generally referred to as "various disciplines") were withdrawn and incorporated into the Jinshi division; Abolish the examination of poetry, prose and calligraphy, and change the examination of classics, theories and policies; The palace examination is just a plan. The important purpose of Wang Anshi's reform of the imperial examination was to unify thought and scholarship.^[77]

In the early stage of the imperial examination, the emphasis was on the strategy of poetry and prose, and in the later stage, the emphasis was on the study of classics. Wang Anshi's abolition of poetry and prose to study the meaning of classics was the hub of this transformation. In the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, the theory of Cheng and Zhu family was used to control the intellectual thought severely, and Wang Anshi also used the "New Meaning of Three Classics", "Zishuo" and other control schools and imperial examinations to start the way.^[77] The "eight part essay" emphasized in the imperial examinations of the Ming and Qing dynasties was directly evolved from the "Confucian classics" formulated by Wang Anshi.^[77]

Wang Anshi's reform was Su Shi , Sima Guang and others objected. After the death of Emperor Shenzong of the Song Dynasty, Empress Dowager Gao "stayed behind the curtain to listen to politics". Sima Guang was the prime minister, who overthrew the reform of the imperial examination, and only preserved the part of the new law that replaced Mo Yi with Confucian classics. In the fourth year of Yuanyou (1089), because Confucian classics had been applied for more than ten years, many scholars were no longer good at poetry, so the Song Dynasty divided Jinshi into poetry and Confucian classics. In the eighth year of Yuanyou (1093) When Empress Dowager Gao died of illness and Song Zhezong was in charge, the imperial examination system set by Wang Anshi was restored.^[77]

The Northern Song Dynasty canceled the civil service examination. However, the imperial examination started from Emperor Taizu of the Song Dynasty, which added a challenge to the scholars in the provincial examination. Many people passed the provincial examination, but the palace examination was dismissed. It is recorded in books such as Shao's Record of Seeing and Hearing and Yanyi's Record of Mourning in the Song Dynasty: "Since our ancestors, scholars have passed through the provinces to go to the palace examination, and there are still some ousted. Poor scholars from afar, who are inferior in the palace examination, cannot return from poverty, and many people have died in the water."^[40]^[79] If the emperor used palace examination to dethrone scholars, then the resentment of those who failed must directly point to the emperor. A scholar named Zhang Yuan, who had failed many times in the palace examination, turned to Xixia in anger and helped Xixia to make suggestions. The Xixia army invaded the Song Dynasty for several years, and the Song army was repeatedly defeated, which upset the monarchs and officials of the Northern Song Dynasty. The ministers blamed the palace examination for ousting the scholar. So in the second year of Jiayou (1057), Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty officially issued an imperial edict that "the imperial examination will not be dismissed",^[41]^[79] Since then, after passing the provincial examination, even if they can win the imperial examination, they will only rank in the palace examination.^[3]^[79]

The Song Dynasty greatly increased the number of people admitted to the imperial examinations. During the twenty second year of Emperor Taizong's reign, nearly ten thousand people were recruited in one discipline, with an average of more than 450 people each year. The total number of Jinshi recruited in the Tang Dynasty was only more than 6000. Song Renzong restricted the number of Jinshi, stipulating that each discipline should not exceed 400. According to three years, there are still more than 130 people every year. The average number of Jinshi in the Song Dynasty is more than ten times that in the Tang Dynasty.^[76]

The imperial examinations in the Song Dynasty were carried out by wealthy families.^[43] Lu Mengzheng, Fan Zhongyan, Ouyang Xiu and other poor scholars were very few in the imperial examination, and they were not poor farmers. The economic expenditure required by the imperial examination was indeed beyond the ordinary farmers' ability to afford.^[43] Sansu and his son were rich families in Meishan County, Sichuan Province. In the first year of Jiayou (1056), Su Xun and his son went to Beijing to take an exam. Although Su Shi's brothers won the gold medal, they spent almost all their belongings. The next year, Su Xun's wife died of illness in Meishan, and the father and son returned home from the funeral. The family had a tragic scene of "the houses were broken and the fences were broken, like the fugitives".^[42] This does not include the cost of not doing production for ten years. How dare small families take such an imperial examination? The expansion of the imperial examination quota in the Northern Song Dynasty attracted almost all the scholars in the whole society. The competition in the imperial examination was fierce, and the scholar's head was white and his body was weak. However, in the Tang Dynasty, the imperial examination was not the only way out for scholars and was not enough to attract the entire intellectual class.^[43]

The imperial examination in the Song Dynasty put an end to the introduction and made decisions purely based on the examination papers, but the unreasonable content of the examination became more prominent. Poetry, Fu and Confucian classics were not the scientific criteria for selecting talents. Such talents as Wang Anshi, Su Shi brothers and Fan Zhongyan who are good at both literature and politics are really rare. The "pass list" method of the Tang Dynasty allowed the examiners to have greater autonomy. As long as the examiners were on duty, they could select those scholars who were not good at writing but had both virtue and talent. The Tang Dynasty had more ministers and ministers with outstanding political achievements than the Song Dynasty. As soon as the imperial examination in the Song Dynasty was determined by the examination paper, it was difficult for those who were not good at literature to emerge. Those who had literary talent but did not know how to manage the country and people might be elected to the top, such as Huang Tingjian, Zhang Jiucheng, and so on.^[43]

However, these laws were increasingly destroyed with the political corruption of the Southern Song Dynasty. In order to win over intellectuals, the rulers of the Northern Song Dynasty expanded the number of candidates in the imperial examination in an all-round way, which resulted in a serious problem of redundant officials in the late feudal society. Since the number of Jinshi recruited in the Song Dynasty was more than ten times that of the Tang Dynasty, in order to place many people who entered the imperial examinations, the Song Dynasty significantly increased the number of bureaucrats. The ranks of officials in the Song Dynasty and the Song Dynasty were unprecedentedly large and bloated, and the administrative efficiency was extremely low. The excessive selection of officials in the imperial examinations in the Song Dynasty caused the disadvantage of redundant officials. Many officials were absent for a long time and lived in misery. Once they took office, they "invaded the fishing industry to get what they wanted" (plundering others' property), "did everything" (doing anything bad), and exploited everything.^[43]

Midfall

Yuan dynasty

From the destruction of gold by Mongolia in the first year of Duanping (1234) to the opening of the imperial examination by the Yuan Dynasty in the first year of Yanyou (1314), the imperial examination in the northern area under the rule of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty stopped for 80 years, which was the longest interruption in the history of the imperial examination in China.^[44] In 1315, the first imperial examination of the Yuan Dynasty began. The imperial examination was held every three years in the Yuan Dynasty, which was divided into three levels: the township examination, the joint examination and the palace examination. The local examinations were the examinations of the Tang and Song dynasties. The Mongols and Semu people only tried the classics and countermeasures; The Han people took an additional test and wrote one essay for each essay. The provincial examinations are held in all provinces. Every August, 300 people are selected to go to the capital for the examinations. The examination was held in February of the next year, and the content was the same as that of the local examination. The number of Jinshi was 100, and the number of Mongolians, Semu, Han, and Southerners was 25. The palace examination was held in March of the same year. The Mongolian and Semu people had different questions from the Han and Southern people. The palace examination is not dethroned, only ranking. The results of the palace examination were released on the left and right lists. Fifty Mongolians and Semu people ranked on the right list (the right was respected in the Yuan Dynasty), and fifty Han people and southerners ranked on the left list. Its purpose is to protect Mongolia Semu people National privilege status.^[45]

The imperial examination of the Yuan Dynasty reflected a huge national inequality. The number of the left and right lists was nominally equal, while the total population of Han and Southern people was unknown how many times larger than that of Mongolia and Semu people. Sixteen imperial examinations were held in the Yuan Dynasty. Only in the first year of Yuantong (1333) and the eleventh year of Zhizheng (1351), 100 Jinshi were selected, and there were many vacancies in the other fourteen. For example, only 56 Jinshi were admitted in the second year of Yanyou. The reason why the imperial examination places were often vacant in the Yuan Dynasty was not that there were no qualified candidates among the Han and Southern people, but that it was really difficult for the Mongolian and Semu people to select 150 places for the local examination and 50 places for candidates to enter the imperial examination. That would only make the number of places for the local examination and the joint examination of the Han and Southern people vacant, so as to maintain the balance of the number of four candidates and prevent the Han people Southerners have the advantage of imperial examinations.^[45]

In name, the first place on both the left and right lists is the number one scholar, but in fact only the number one scholar on the right list is the Mongolian and Semu people. The Yuan Dynasty did not attach importance to the number one scholar of the Han and Southern people in Zuobang. Mongols are called "Chinese". Duo Lie, a Mongolian, won the first place on the right list in the exam. Cheng Duanli said, "Only Mongolia was born to be the first place winner, and respected people."^[46]

Mongolian and Semu examinees have low difficulty and one less exam, but their official positions are higher than those of Han and Southern candidates. In addition, Mongolian and Semu examinees who take the exam with the same difficulty as Han and Nan people are more superior after being selected Delegating official 。 The imperial examination of the Yuan Dynasty not only gave preferential treatment to Mongolian and Semu examinees in many ways, but also severely restricted Han and Nanren examinees. It also deliberately created estrangement between the Han and Nanren in Zuobang, provoked conflicts, and let the Han suppress Nanren. According to the imperial examination of the Yuan Dynasty, southerners only accounted for half of the left list, and the top scholars in the left list were not southerners.^[46]

Even if the Han people and the southerners were lucky enough to win the Jinshi, their political prospects were extremely limited. Rightness In the eighth year (1348), Wang Zongzhe ranked first in the local examination, the joint examination and the palace examination, and was called the only scholar in the Yuan Dynasty who was "three yuan in a row". This kind of person quickly rose to the position of the first assistant minister in the Song Dynasty, but Wang Zongzhe was not praised in the official circles of the Yuan Dynasty.^[47]

The imperial examination of the Yuan Dynasty did not change the situation that the vast majority of the bureaucracy of the Yuan Dynasty was occupied by Mongolia, Semu nobles and promoted petty officials, which is the basic reason why the official administration of the Yuan Dynasty was more corrupt and dark than that of other feudal dynasties. The upper Mongolian and Semu nobles in the Yuan Dynasty were mostly people with shallow cultural level, ignorant of the times, greedy and fatuous. In the Yuan Dynasty, a large number of middle and lower level officials were promoted from the petty officials of prefectures and counties. These people lacked feudal morality and knowledge education, and were dedicated to extortion. The feudal dynasties throughout the history have written the strict punishment of corrupt officials, but the Yuan Dynasty did not pay salaries to officials. The counties and prefectures under the jurisdiction of officials are similar to feudal fiefs, which is tantamount to openly indulging officials in "eating people's belly". In the seventh year of Dade (1303) of the Emperor Chengzong of the Yuan Dynasty, he occasionally inspected the administration of officials and once found that there were eighteen thousand four hundred and seventy-three corrupt officials and five thousand one hundred and seventy-six unjust jails. This was only one part of the exposed middle and lower level officials, not to mention the influential upper nobles.^[48] The Yuan Dynasty's official promotion system, which excluded the imperial examination and selected officials, and the upper class used nobles and the lower class used petty officials, ran counter to China's national conditions at that time, and it was impossible to maintain long-term stability.^[48]

Heyday

Ming and Qing Dynasties

Jinshi scroll in imperial examination system

Zhu Yuanzhang became the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty in 276 years, first of all because he got the help of Confucianism to the greatest extent.^[48] Zhu Yuanzhang The Ming Dynasty was established in the third year of Hongwu (1370), when the imperial examination was issued, which stipulated that "Chinese and foreign civil servants should be promoted through the imperial examination, and those who are not in the imperial examination should not be awarded official positions".^[49] However, Zhu Yuanzhang soon thought that the selected candidates were less talented. Zhu Yuanzhang announced that he would stop the imperial examination for ten years. In the 15th year of Hongwu (1382), Zhu Yuanzhang announced to resume the imperial examination. In the seventeenth year of Hongwu (1384), the Ming Dynasty published the Imperial Examination Formats, which basically formulated the written laws and regulations of the imperial examination for more than 250 years after the Ming Dynasty. The Qing Dynasty generally copied the precedent of the Ming Dynasty, and the imperial examination of the Ming and Qing dynasties came down in one continuous line for more than 500 years.^[50]

The imperial examination in the Ming and Qing dynasties became a huge system with various levels, grades, rules, and names. The imperial examinations in the Ming and Qing dynasties were divided into five levels, namely, children's examination, hospital examination, local examination, joint examination and palace examination.

Child examination: The most elementary local county and government examinations in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Those who passed the county and government examinations twice became child students, indicating that they had basic cultural knowledge and writing ability. However, many scholars are still a child when they find that their hair and hair are white.^[50]

Hospital trial : It is held in "colleges" of prefectures and prefectures, and is divided into two levels: "annual examination" and "scientific examination". The annual exam is the "entrance" exam for children held every year. After admission, they are called "students", commonly known as "scholars". The subject examination is to test the scholar who has already been in school. Only those who get good results can take the rural examination of the next level of candidates. Those who get bad results will be punished or even disqualified. The subject examination is also called recording subjects. As long as students pass the exam, they will be separated from the civilian class and called "scholars". In the ninth year of Shunzhi's reign in the Qing Dynasty (1652), the "disciplinarian rules" said that school students should be "free from small grain and rich in food... officials from all government offices should treat them with courtesy"^[88] "If the students commit serious crimes, the local officials should report to the school administration first, and then punish them after the reform; if the students sue for trivial matters, they should be punished by the school, and they should not be regarded as the unity of the people."^[51] That is to say, the students enjoy the exemption of small grain (exemption from service tax), food granaries (the state provides food and clothing, and those who are generous are called Lin Sheng, and the second is hyperplasia. The new students have no food granaries, and are called attached students), political and judicial privileges (officials treat students with courtesy, students do not have to kneel when they see officials, and local officials who violate the law must first report them to the school officials before they can deal with them, and they are not allowed to use torture tools like ordinary people).^[50]

Local examination: also known as Dabi and Qiuwei, once every three years. There were three local examinations on August 9th, 12th and 15th. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the number of candidates for the provincial examination was determined by the central government. According to the population, the number of candidates in each province ranged from dozens to hundreds, and the total number of candidates nationwide ranged from 1000 to 12300. Since being qualified as an official after passing the imperial examination, the provincial examination is the most important and arduous pass of the imperial examination in the Ming and Qing dynasties. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the provincial examination was called the "B" examination, which was opposite to the "A" examination and the "A" examination. The first name is Jie Yuan.^[50]

The joint examination: held from the 9th to 15th day of February in the following year after the local examination, it is also known as the Spring Festival Festivals and Ritual Festivals. The contents of the three joint examinations are the same as those of the local examinations. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, about 200 or 300 candidates were enrolled in each subject. In general, there are sub lists besides the main list of the Ming and Qing examination. Although the candidates entered into the sub list are not considered as Jinshi, they can be awarded to the school instructors or other lower level officials, or recruited as supervisors by the National Academy, and receive a certain salary from the state.^[52]

Palace examination: The last level of the imperial examination in the Ming and Qing dynasties was held on March 15, one month after the joint examination. The content of the palace examination is a matter of current policy. The cabinet ministers prepare several kinds of questions and present them to the emperor temporarily. The palace examinations of the Ming and Qing dynasties were not dethroned but ranked. The top three ranked first, the top three ranked second, and the top three ranked third in Tanhua; Some people in the second class are considered as Jinshi; The third class and several others are considered to be from the same Jinshi background. On March 25, the new Jinshi and the palace examination officials enjoyed a "banquet of grace and honor" in the Ministry of Rites. After the banquet, officials were appointed. The three first class Jinshi are generally awarded the important posts such as editing in the Imperial Academy. The rest Jinshi often have to take a hall election or imperial examination, and then are awarded official posts according to the ranking in the palace examination. The excellent ones are also admitted to the Imperial Academy.^[52]

In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system of "the imperial examination must be carried out by the school" was implemented. Scholars who took part in the rural examination must be students from official schools; The outstanding students of local schools can be reported to the Imperial College in Beijing, while the Imperial College students can directly elect and confer official positions.^[53] In the Ming and Qing dynasties, it was always possible for supervisors to elect and confer official positions. Generally, students entered the Imperial College and formed a set of complicated grades and rules, which were generally as follows: local schools sent students and teachers to the Imperial College annually, called annual tribute; It is called selecting tribute to select outstanding Lin students and students from various schools to pay tribute to the Imperial College; It is called Yougong to select and pay tribute among Linsheng, Jiasheng and newly enrolled students; Those who fail to pass the provincial examinations but have better scores will be recorded in the deputy list, and the deputy list students will be selected to pay tribute to the Imperial College, called deputy tribute; When the emperor ascends the throne or at a national celebration, or for other reasons, the emperor makes a special edict to increase the number of tribute to the Imperial College, it is called tribute. The students who are over the age of Gong, Xuan Gong, You Gong, Fu Gong, and En Gong and have been admitted to the Imperial College are called Gong Sheng. They can continue to refer to the imperial examination and can also be candidates for official positions. Gongsheng in the Ming and Qing Dynasties is also commonly known as the Ming Sutra. The textbooks of the Imperial College and the official schools at all levels in the Ming and Qing dynasties were the traditional four books and five classics. Zhu Yuanzhang also added his own book, The Imperial System, which advocated absolute monarchy and feudalism that required subjects to obey. Zhu Yuanzhang also deprived the status of "Mencius", ordered that the memorial tablet of Mencius be expelled from the Confucian Temple, and the Imperial College and imperial examinations banned "Mencius". He also instructed Liu Sanwu, a scholar in the Imperial Academy, to abridge the Mencius. Eighty five articles, such as "the people are the most important, the state is the second most important, and the monarch is the least important", "the monarch should admonish if he has a big mistake, and if he does not listen to the second time repeatedly, he will change his position", were all the essence of Mencius and Confucianism.^[54]

The only purpose of the eight part essay is to take part in the imperial examination. In addition, it has no practical value. Eight part essay is also called Zhiyi or Zhiyi. The Ming History Election Annals said that it was an eight part essay signed by Zhu Yuanzhang and Liu Ji. Gu Yanwu said that it began in the Chenghua period of the Ming Dynasty (1465-1487), and some people traced its source back to the Northern Song Dynasty. The formation process of the eight part essay is very long, and it was roughly finalized during the Chenghua period in the middle of the Ming Dynasty.^[54]

The evolution of the imperial examination is that from content to form, the ideological restrictions on scholars become more and more strict. Wang Anshi in the Northern Song Dynasty abandoned his poems and fu to take the meaning of classics, limiting the content of selecting scholars to the narrow range of Confucian classics. In the Southern Song Dynasty, the meaning of scriptures formed "a fixed pattern, first a topic breaking, and then a topic following", followed by fixed paragraphs such as small talk, big talk, afterthought, and the end. "In this order, the text is mostly confined to occasional pairs, which is generally lengthy and complicated, and can be boring".^[55] It can be seen that the Southern Song Dynasty's Confucian classics have taken shape.^[54]

Eight part essay was formed in the middle of Ming Dynasty. Each eight part essay is composed of fixed paragraphs, such as topic breaking, topic setting, starting, starting, starting, middle, back and binding. The eight part essay not only has a rigid system, but also needs to "speak on behalf of the sages", that is, to speculate on the tone of the sages, Confucius, Meng, Cheng and Zhu. Therefore, most of the eight part essay is ambiguous, obscure, and seems to be connected. Eight part essay does not have the shining literary grace and sound momentum of poetry, fu, argumentation, strategy and other excellent works, but it is obscure and boring, and some words and sentences are even difficult to accurately grasp their meanings. The typical stereotyped writing style is wordy, empty and boring, which has nothing to do with political talent. The rulers of the Ming and Qing dynasties flaunted "truth-seeking and upright", and only allowed the examinees to do "thick and sophisticated" rigid articles. They were not allowed to use gorgeous words like poetry and prose, and they were not allowed to quote any books other than classics. The eight part essay does not have the gorgeous color of poetry and prose, which is characterized by extensive references and metaphor, nor does it have any other place beyond the boundaries. Even within the classic, there are taboos for committing crimes. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, "Stop killing chickens for millet, and eat them, and see their two sons." If the examiner writes "Kill chickens for millet, and eat them", if the examinee's article refers to "stop stopping children for millet," it is a crime, and refers to "see their two sons"^[86] No permission is granted even if it is committed. It is really very difficult to drag a few words of Confucius and Mencius scriptures into an article in such strict and rigid rules.^[54]

Since Wang Anshi carried out the policy of selecting talents by virtue of righteousness, the enthusiasm of the imperial examination system became less and more negative. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the imperial examination reached its peak and its own shortcomings were also very serious. In an authoritarian and closed social environment, due to the inability to accept the influence of new ideas, academia, and technology, and the lack of innovation spirit, the evolution process of an existing system or thing is often not getting better, but getting worse.^[54]

A brief list of imperial examinations in the Ming and Qing dynasties
Department/Content/Project	Hospital trial	Local examination (Autumn Festival)	Trials (Chunwei)	Palace examination
examination room	Temporary examination room for academic and political tour case (Fuxian County)	Capital city and provincial tributes (provincial capital)	Jingcheng Gongyuan (Ritual Department)	palace Palace
chief examiner	Education and politics in all provinces	Special officials of the central government	imperial envoy	emperor
participant	Child (Confucian scholar)	Students and supervisors	Cite people	successful candidates of the national civil service examination
Middle name	skilful writer (scholar)	Cite people	Gongshi (300 or so)	Scholars
date	Twice in three years	Zi, Mao, Wu, August of You Laurel list	March next year Apricot list	April of the same year Gold List
the first	the first on the list of graduates in a district	Solution	Membership	No. 1 Scholar
proxime accessit	/	2-10 named Yayuan	/	The top spot
third	/	/	/	Flower exploration

abolish

In the middle and late 19th century, the Chinese nation lagged behind the world, and some advanced intellectuals in China embarked on the road of learning from Western culture to improve China. After the Opium War, there was no way to deal with the crisis in the eight part anthology because of the continuous events of ceding land, paying reparations and humiliating the country. Some bureaucrats started to learn western technology“ Westernization Movement ”。 Feng Guifen In the book "Protest at Xiaobinlu", he proposed to change the imperial examination proposal, change the meeting to try the proposal, stop the military examination proposal, widely select scholars to discuss, and adopt western learning to discuss, requiring that half of the imperial examination quota should be allocated to the talents who study western technology and science, and that they should be treated as a member of the imperial examination team; He also accused the stereotyped writing of "wise people who are poor and old and spend their time on useless things"^[56]

The Sino French War in the 10th year of Guangxu's reign (1884), the Sino Japanese War of 1894 in the 20th year of Guangxu's reign (1894), and the Qing Dynasty ceded a large amount of land and made reparations. Many people who are worried about their country realize that it is far from enough to learn western technology and science. In the 21st year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1895), the event of "writing on the bus" occurred, Kang Youwei More than 1000 people from all provinces were invited to write a letter to Emperor Guangxu. One of the major propositions in the "Letter on the Bus" written by Kang Youwei specifically pointed out that "stereotyped selection of talents" harmed talents, and advocated the development of education and the promotion of western scientific and cultural knowledge. He suggested that in addition to the first four books and five classics, the second and third imperial examinations should change to domestic literature, history and foreign knowledge; Add "art learning", that is, astronomy, geology, mining, sound, light, chemistry, electricity, machinery, foreign languages and other disciplines, and call for "art learning" scholars, talents and scholars. In the 24th year of Guangxu (1898), Emperor Guangxu decided to reform. Liang Qichao Jointly invited people in Beijing to submit a letter again, asking for changes in the imperial examination. Emperor Guangxu received Kang Youwei. Kang Youwei once again argued against the evils of stereotyped writing. "The reason why people are not wise enough is that stereotyped writing is done by people who try to learn stereotyped writing. Those who learn stereotyped writing do not read the books after the Qin and Han dynasties, nor do they study the affairs of other countries on the earth, but they can use it to accumulate important officials. Today, officials are in great numbers, but those who can't afford to do things are all caused by stereotyped writing. Therefore, Taiwan and Liao are not cut off from the imperial court, but from stereotyped writing; The twenty million yuan will not be compensated by the court, but by the eight shares; Jiaozhou, Luda, Weiwan and Guangzhou Bay are not divided by the imperial court, but by stereotyped writing. It was approved by Emperor Guangxu. Kang Youwei and Yang Shenxiu 、 Xu Zhijing 、 Song Bolu They were asked to give up the eight part essay and change the imperial examination. At that time, not only the reformists advocated the abolition of stereotyped writing, but also Zhang Zhidong, an official of the Westernization Movement, was in favor of reform. On the other hand, conservative ministers were strongly opposed. However, Emperor Guangxu issued an imperial edict, "from the beginning of the imperial examination, the township examination and the birth and death examination will be carried out separately, and those who use four scripts will all try to change their strategies and theories." Then he issued successive edicts, ordering the Beijing Normal University to open one day, transforming all academies across the country into middle schools and western schools, abolishing the "imperial examination" in the final stage of the imperial examination, and "selecting scholars without regular script".^[56]

but Reform Movement of 1898 But in 103 days, the forces led by the Queen Mother of the West launched a coup, and the new policies were dashed except that the Beijing Normal University School continued to open. The supreme power of the Qing Dynasty was still in the hands of those decadent Manchu nobles and ministers with stereotyped origins.^[56]

In the 26th year of Guangxu (1900), the Qing Dynasty was defeated rapidly Eight-Nation Alliance Beijing fell, and the Empress Dowager fled with Emperor Guangxu. The profound and painful lesson finally made the Qing government understand that the only way to save itself was to comprehensively implement the New Deal and get rid of malpractices.^[56-57]

In July of the 27th year of Guangxu's reign (1901), the Qing government issued an imperial edict to reform the imperial examination. The township and conference examinations were the first to test five essays on China's political history, the second to test five national policies on politics and art (science and technology), the third to test two essays on "four books" and one essay on "five classics"; "The eight part essay program is not allowed to be used in any of the four books and five classics"; "The writing of martial arts students and children's examinations, as well as the martial arts and joint examinations in Wuxiang, will be stopped forever." At the same time, an edict was issued to open schools and set up new education, basically restoring the content of the New Deal during the Reform Movement of 1898.^[57]

In the 29th year of Guangxu's reign (1903), Yuan Shikai, the governor of Zhili, and Zhang Zhidong, the governor of Shuliangjiang, requested that the imperial examination should be abolished gradually, "so that all the scholars in the world would have no other way to enter the school." The Qing government held the last conference and palace examinations in the Qing Dynasty and in Chinese history, with Liu Chunlin, Zhu Ruzhen, and Shang Yanliu as the candidates for Zhuangyuan, Bangyan, and Tanhua, respectively.^[57]

In the 31st year of Guangxu's reign (1905), the Qing government officially announced: "Since the beginning of the imperial examination in the Third Five Year Plan (1906), all township and joint examinations will be stopped, and all provincial examinations will also be stopped." So far, the imperial examination system in Chinese history has finally ended.^[57]

abroad

Influenced by Chinese culture, in history, some countries around China have not only sent students to China to take part in the imperial examination, but also set up the imperial examination system in their own countries.

Vietnam?

Vietnam's imperial examination system, which began in the eighth year of Xining (1075) and ended in the fourth year of Qiding (1919), is the latest country in the world to abolish the imperial examination system.^[89]

Vietnamese imperial examination officials

The imperial examination system in Vietnam began in the first year of Renzong Taining (1075) of the Li Dynasty, but the imperial examination system of the Li Dynasty was held only four times, with a small number of people, and did not have a great impact.

Later, in the eighth year of Jianzhong (1232) of Emperor Taizong of the Chen Dynasty, the imperial examination was carried out again. The way of implementation was to set up the Imperial College, where students from the Imperial College participated in the examination to obtain the qualification of Jinshi. Later, in order to expand the imperial examination, Ruizong of the Chen Dynasty formally established the Jinshi Branch in the second year of Longqing (1314), allowing more people to participate in the Jinshi Examination.^[89]

In the Li Dynasty, it further imitated the imperial examination system of the Ming and Qing dynasties. In the third year of Hongwu, the Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty (1370), Annam, Koryo, and Zhancheng scholars were allowed to participate in the joint examination in Nanjing after passing their own provincial examinations. Later, in the first year of Shaocheng (1401), Annam was once again included in the territory. All these contributed to the great influence of the Chinese imperial examination system on the subsequent Li Dynasty and Vietnam, including the examination methods of three levels, namely, the provincial examination, the joint examination, and the palace examination, And the martial arts examination set up by Emperor Yuzong of the Li Dynasty (1705-1729). Later, in the 10th year of the Ming Dynasty (1832), the Ruan Dynasty further introduced the eight part essay as the main content of the examination. In addition, the Li and Ruan dynasties established special examination places similar to those in the Ming and Qing dynasties.^[89]

North Korea

Main term: Korean Imperial Examination System

The imperial examination system in Korea began in the ninth year of the reign of Emperor Guangzong (958) in the Korean era, but it was not officially implemented until the Korean Dynasty. By the 20th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1894), the imperial examination system had existed for 936 years in the history of Korea.^[89] The imperial examination system of the Korean Dynasty was a combination of the imperial examination systems of the Tang, Five Dynasties, Song, Yuan and other dynasties. The Korean imperial examination system has three examinations in the Ministry of Rites and three candles (night examination). The examination period is in March of the spring (spring examination). The main examination organ is in the Ministry of Rites, and the subjects are Jinshi, Mingfa, Mingshu, Mingsuan, Sanli, Sanchuan, Binggong, mantra, etc. Jinshi is divided into A, B, and Fu. The Ming Sutra has sutras, ink meanings, and the exam uses the method of pasting names; There are martial arts and martial arts examinations, local drinking ceremony of tribute, and the ceremony of paying homage to Confucian Temple; There are three levels of examinations, namely, the local examination, the joint examination and the palace examination; The first three years are the beginning of the imperial examination, and the position of being promoted and dismissed is higher. In the original subjects of Korea, divination, geography, He Lun, and government officials, Korea also created the Imperial College Examination in the examination process, as well as the monk discipline.^[89]

The imperial examination system in the Li Dynasty of Korea was divided into major subjects (arts, martial arts, etc.) and miscellaneous subjects (Yi, medicine, yin and yang, and law). The ruling class of the Korean Dynasty was "two classes", that is, ministers of the literary class and the martial class. The college entrance examination is the only way to become a civil and military class. In name, civilians can also participate, but in fact, it is mainly monopolized by the children of the two classes.^[89]

The "formal annual examination" held every three years is a "big competition subject". At the beginning, the number of applicants was 33, the same as that of the Korean Dynasty. Later, the number of applicants in the annual examination often reached 40 to 50. In addition, there are also various irregular "don't try", which is equivalent to the Enke exam in the Ming and Qing dynasties of China. Every time the emperor ascends the throne, performs good fortune, celebrates his longevity, the imperial concubine attaches to the temple, confers the title of the son, the son performs the crown ceremony, and the son enters the school, the ceremony is held, and the "try again" is held every ten years to allow current officials to take the exam. From time to time, there will be a "personal examination" in which the king will come to the examination room, which will be divided into "paying homage to the saints" which is attended by Confucian scholars in Chengjunguan and "Spring Pond Examination" which is held in Changqing Palace and attended by officials. In these special subjects, at least three students will be admitted, at most more than 40 students will be admitted, and usually more than 10 students will be admitted. In this way, the number of Jinshi in North Korea is much more than that in China.^[89]

There is no specified class in the miscellaneous department, which can be participated from the Dalits to the nobility. If Dalits, Baiding, and good people are granted official positions and promoted to the middle class, Dalit men, especially the commoners born by two classes of noble concubines (concubines of Dalit origin), who inherit their mother's identity as Dalits according to the mother's law, have the opportunity to receive better education than ordinary Dalits, The goal is often to get rid of the identity of untouchable people by taking the examination of miscellaneous department vacancies. A few who performed extremely well could even become two classes. For example, Xu Jun, a medical officer during the period from Xuanzu to Guanghaijun, was born to two classes of humble concubines. He was born to humble people. Later, he became a medical officer through medical examination. Because of his outstanding performance, he was granted three saints and meritorious officials, and became one of the two classes. The medical examination in miscellaneous departments will be held in Hanyang, the capital, once every five years. The purpose is to fill the vacancy of doctors in internal hospitals. If there is no vacancy within five years, it will not be held. The medical examination is about five subjects: "interior" (internal medicine), "appearance" (surgery), "miscellaneous diseases", "decoction" (pharmacy), and "acupuncture".^[89]

Japan

(Main term: Japanese Imperial Examination System ）

In the 8th and 9th centuries, Japan began to carry out tribute examinations in imitation of the imperial examination system of the Tang Dynasty. After the promulgation of the Dabao Decree in 701, the tribute examination system was established and divided into scholar, Ming Jing, Jinshi, Ming Fa, medicine, acupuncture and other disciplines, among which the scholar discipline was the most popular. The tribute examination is directly presided over by the style ministries and provinces in charge of investigating and appointing officials. It is held once a year in October and November. There are two kinds of students in the examination: tribute people and jue people. The students sent by the local countries to take part in the scientific examination are called tribute people, and the students who take part in the scientific examination according to the temporary system of the emperor (special recruitment of talents according to temporary needs) or the university through the liao examination are called jue people.^[89]

However, Japan is in a period of rising aristocratic power. The imperial examination system with the spirit of equality has a huge conflict with the aristocratic tradition, so it is difficult to take root in Japan. As the nobility played a role in politics and the school officials were hereditary, by the 10th century, the Japanese imperial examination had been abolished. The Japanese imperial examination was basically dominated by the nobility, and it was not based on talent and learning, but on seniority and reputation, which led to the Japanese imperial examination becoming more formal and hereditary. By the 15th and 16th centuries, only the formal general plan was left. Tribute has disappeared in the Edo era.^[89]

Examination subjects

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Chuanbei Daogongyuan (Sichuan gongyuan) (4 sheets)

The subjects of imperial examinations in all dynasties were constantly changing. The subjects of the imperial examination in the Tang Dynasty are scholar 、 person well versed in Chinese classics 、 Jinshi 、 Explicit law (Legal) Mingzi (Text) Clear calculation (Arithmetic) and so on^[82] 。 Song dynasty Wang Anshi's Political Reform The imperial examination was changed to include only one division of Jinshi. In the Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, there was only one imperial examination for Jinshi. The Qing Dynasty followed the Ming system, but there were also special systems (special departments), such as Erudite Hongci 、 Translation Section Etc.^[83-84]

In addition to the special subjects, the content of the imperial examination of the Ming Dynasty and Jinshi is mainly Confucian classics. Examinations vary from dynasty to dynasty, mainly in the Tang Dynasty Current affairs and policies (quiz) Mo Yi 、 oral examination 、 Sutra pasting 、 Poetry and ode In the Song Dynasty Jingyi 、 Asking In the Ming Dynasty, there was only one door, namely, Jingyi, Shifu, etc.^[58]

Examination form

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Mo Yi

Ink meaning means written answer. The examiner sets the question according to the scripture, and the examinee answers the previous annotations or context of the scripture. Sometimes taking the form of oral reply is called oral righteousness.^[3]

Sutra pasting

Sutra pasting is a way for examiners to take a paragraph from a classic and cover it with a piece of paper, so that examinees can recite it, similar to the modern way of filling in the blanks.^[3]

Enquiry (current policy)

The examiner asks questions about current affairs, and the candidates answer them in writing. Among the imperial examinations in the Tang Dynasty, the Ming Dynasty had the most scholars. But the most honorable one is Jinshike. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, the imperial examinations were five "current policies". Current policies involve the country's practical problems, so that scholars can get up from the stack of old papers, face the society, observe and think about problems, and design solutions.^[3]

Poetry and ode

Poetry and Fu, Tang Gaozong Yonglong In the second year (681), Jinshike added a number of articles and two essays, so far, Jinshike formed a three exam system of essays, sutras and quizzes. Essays generally refer to poems, fu, proverbs, inscriptions, tables, praises, etc. to test literary talent. During the Kaiyuan period of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, two essays were clearly identified as one poem and one fu.^[59]

The examination of poetry and fu requires people to have considerable knowledge of history and culture, as well as vivid image thinking ability and aesthetic feeling ability, so it is more fresh, lively and full of spirit than the calligraphy and calligraphy. It can also be seen from the poetry and prose examination that the examinee's ability to master language and writing is the basic condition for official politics, which is convenient to distinguish between advantages and disadvantages in the examination. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to compare the selection of scholars in poetry and fu with the later generations' "Confucian classics" that bound the examinee's thoughts to the Confucian and Mencius doctrine.^[59]

essay

Essays generally refer to poems, fu, proverbs, inscriptions, tables, praises, etc., which test the candidates' literary talents. Since the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the trend of advocating literature has become increasingly popular. During the Kaiyuan period of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty, the two essays were identified as one poem and one fu respectively in the Ming Dynasty. The poetry and fu exam requires candidates to have a considerable knowledge of history and culture, and also requires candidates to have vivid image thinking ability and aesthetic perception ability, which is more fresh, lively and full of spirit than the calligraphy and calligraphy.^[3]

Martial arts examination

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In the second year of Chang'an (702), Wu Zetian start Martial arts examination system 。^[60-62] Later, the martial arts examination system of all dynasties rose and fell. In the 27th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty (1901), the military examination system was abolished.^[63]

The martial arts examination in the Tang Dynasty mainly examined techniques such as weight lifting, riding and shooting, foot shooting, and horse spear; In addition, there are also requirements for the appearance of candidates, who should be "grand and can be generals". In the Song Dynasty, the martial arts examination was changed to give priority to literature. "Although the bow is weak, the study is outstanding", it can also be excellent. The martial arts examination in the Song Dynasty did not require high force.^[85]

In the 14th year of Chenghua in the Ming Dynasty (1478), a Wuke township and a joint exam were set up. In the 6th year of Hongzhi (1493), the Wuke exam was set up every six years. The strategy was first, then the bow horse. Those who failed in the strategy were not allowed to try the bow horse. Later, it was changed to once every three years. The content of the exam is mainly about horse stance, bow and arrow, and strategy. Most of the military posts in the Ming Dynasty were inherited by Shiyin. In addition, the martial arts examination was only a supplementary form for those who started in the army. Therefore, the military examination in the Ming Dynasty did not produce many people.^[90]

The martial arts examination system of the Qing Dynasty basically followed that of the late Ming Dynasty, with little change in examination procedures and methods, but much more attention was paid to it than that of the Ming Dynasty. In the Qing Dynasty, although the military attache was still the "right way", followed by the imperial examination, the number of those who were born in the imperial examination continued to increase, accounting for a large proportion in the military. In addition, the country strongly advocates that the system is increasingly strict and the admission is relatively fair. Therefore, folk martial arts practitioners flock to the martial arts examination. The martial arts examination in the Qing Dynasty provided a large number of talents for the country, among which many outstanding figures emerged.^[90] In the Qing Dynasty, examinations at all levels were usually held every three years, and there was also a quota for the number of students enrolled in each subject. But in addition to regular subjects, the so-called“ Enke ”, "En'e", absorb more brave people to serve the ruler. The exam is divided into one, two and three sessions. In one trial of horse archery, you can ride three times and shoot nine arrows. If three arrows hit the target, you will be qualified. Those who fail to reach three arrows are not allowed to participate in two trials. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, a horse shooting "Earth" was added to investigate the ability of ambush shooting. Step shot and skill courage were tested in two rounds. Step shooting nine shots and three strikes is qualified. "Technical courage" mainly measures physical strength. There are three items in total: pull a hard bow at the head. The bow is divided into three parts: twelve force, ten force and eight force. In addition, there is a number bow with more than twelve force. Candidates can choose their own bow number and pull it three times at most. The duet dance broadsword is divided into three sizes: 120 kg, 100 kg and 80 kg. The person who tries the broadsword should first break the broadsword from left to right, cross the top, and dance before and after the chest. The tool number is optional, and it is subject to one-time completion. The third item is to take a stone sinker, that is, a stone specially prepared for the exam. It is rectangular in shape, and there are places on both sides that can be picked with fingers, but it is not deep. It is also divided into three sizes, the first is 300 jin, the second is 250 jin, and the third is 200 jin. The examination room is also equipped with a stone with a weight of more than 300 kg. The candidate can choose his own stone number. He is required to lift the stone to between his chest and abdomen, and then expose the bottom of the stone once on the left and right with the help of abdominal force, which is called "seal offering". Once completed, he is qualified. For all candidates, two of the three items of bow, knife and stone must be the first and second scores. Those with more than two items of the third score will be disqualified and will be disqualified for three examinations.^[90] The three contests were called "Cheng Wen", also called "infield", which was equivalent to the culture class exam. The infield exam is more difficult for most martial artists to cope with than the outfield exam, so the exam method has to be changed frequently. At first, it was to test strategies and discuss articles. "Strategy" was equivalent to a question and answer question, and "theory" was to write an argumentative paper according to the test questions. In Shunzhi's time, it was divided into two chapters of policy and two chapters of theory, and the title was selected from the four books and the book of war. During the reign of Kangxi, it was changed into one article on policy and two articles on theory. The strategy question is from Sun Tzu《 Wu Zi 》《 Sima Fa 》Three books of war, the topic is only from《 The Analects of Confucius 》《 Mencius 》The difficulty of the exam is reduced. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, it was changed to "Policy" and "Discussion", all of which were selected from《 Seven Books of Martial Arts Classic 》。 In the Jiaqing period, the policy and theory were abolished, and a paragraph in the Seven Books of Martial Arts was written according to the requirements, usually only about 100 words. This kind of accommodation makes the level of the infield exam lower and lower, and finally it is almost a formal existence. At that time, there was a strong trend of discriminating against the warriors in the society. After this change, the warriors were more regarded by the scholars as correction fighters, and the social status of the martial arts examination was no more than that of the early Qing Dynasty.^[91]

Before the Song Dynasty, there was no "top martial artist". The first martial arts champion was born in Song Shenzong When, it is from Fujian Xue Yi Later, he died in battle with Xixia. In history, the famous military generals who were born in the martial arts examination were still from the Tang Dynasty Guo Ziyi （ tang xunzong Different martial arts examinations in the early years of the Kaiyuan era), Northern Song Dynasty Xu Huiyan (Wen Jinshi was born, and later abandoned literature to practice martial arts, Song Huizong Awarded the first prize in martial arts), Ming Dynasty Military leader famed for combat against Japanese pirate invaders （ Ming Shizong Wu Jinshi in the year of Jiajing) and so on.

Historical influence

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Domestic impact

Positive impact

The imperial examination system was the fairest form of talent selection that could be adopted in the feudal era. It expanded the social level of talent introduction in feudal countries and absorbed a large number of people from the middle and lower classes into the ruling class. Especially in the Tang and Song Dynasties, when the imperial examination system was just beginning to mature, it showed a vigorous progress, forming a golden age for the development of ancient Chinese culture.^[3]

On the whole, the historiography circle basically held a positive attitude towards the imperial examination system of the Tang Dynasty, believing that it recruited talents for the rulers of the Tang Dynasty, provided a new way for the lower classes of the society to rise, shook the patriarchal system, expanded the ruling foundation, and promoted the development of culture.^[64]

Compared with all other electoral systems in feudal society, the imperial examination system has its progressiveness and rationality. It resulted in social mobility and improved feudal politics to a certain extent; The complete set of rigorous examination procedures and systems of the imperial examination are known as the outstanding creation of the Chinese nation. The imperial examination system enabled candidates to obtain fair competition opportunities, which had undeniable advantages in mobilizing the positive factors of people and widely collecting talents. The power of selecting candidates by examination lies in the country. The candidates are selfless and benevolent, and those who are dismissed have no resentment. It is also conducive to social stability and political clarity.^[64]

The imperial examination system promoted social mobility. The imperial examination system was quite open and competitive to a certain extent, resulting in the flow of talents in feudal society. Some civilians can become rulers after passing the imperial examination; Other officials' children became civilians due to their failure in the imperial examination. The imperial examination system promoted the flow of members at different levels, selected a number of officials for successive rulers, and played a vital role in the stability and development of China's feudal society.^[64]

negative influence

In the early Tang and Song dynasties when the imperial examination system was mature, its enthusiasm still played a leading role. But after the Song Dynasty, with the inhuman development of feudal autocracy, the imperial examination became more and more negative. After the Song Dynasty, the cultural creativity of the intellectual class of the literati and officialdom declined from generation to generation.^{[11 ]}

The later imperial examination system made Confucianism a tool for rulers to enslave their subjects; The bureaucracy has grown, but the talent force engaged in scientific and technological research is relatively weak.

With the development of the imperial examination system, especially in the feudal society The imperial examination system will also have some negative effects.

First, because the rulers changed the content of the examination, the imperial examination became a shackle that fettered intellectuals' thoughts. Emperor Taizu of the Ming Dynasty The style of eight part essay, which originated from the Yuan Dynasty, was officially designated as the style of imperial examination. This style is composed of such paragraphs as breaking the topic, starting the topic, starting the speech, starting the writing, starting the writing, middle writing, later writing, and binding the writing. In the last four paragraphs, there are two antithetical words, totaling eight verses, so it is called stereotyped writing 。 The theme of the eight part essay must be made on behalf of the sage, that is Confucius To guide the writing of articles. The Qing Dynasty expanded sages to Confucius disciples and Zhu Xi The sages, including Neo Confucianism, also asked to take the tone of Zhu Xi's writing as the style. Qianlong Later, the examination poem became an important item in the imperial examination. Like the eight part essay, the test poem has a fixed formula, which is also eight couplets and sixteen sentences, but the eight part essay becomes six part essay. The first couplet is like breaking a topic, the second couplet is like connecting a topic, the third couplet is like starting a speech, the fourth and fifth couplets are like the middle part, the sixth and seventh couplets are like the back part, and the eighth couplet is like the binding part. Moreover, we must carry forward the thoughts of Confucius, Mencius and Zhu Xi, and not express our feelings arbitrarily. The original intention of Dingbagu might have been to write it in a unified and fixed format to facilitate the examiners' scoring and show "fairness". Otherwise, each person has his own writing style, which will lead to the situation of "different people have different opinions, and the wise have different opinions". But later it became a tool for the rulers to control their thoughts. Because of the eight part essay, it suppressed the thoughts of those who were not good at imperial examination subjects, and also made some intellectuals unable to innovate academically and ideologically. As a result, the development of science and technology has stagnated. Prolific translator of Western works into classical Chinese He once described the imperial examination system as follows: "The stereotyped selection of scholars makes the world spend time in useless places and degenerate into ignorance. People are arrogant and stupid, which is not enough to help the country and provide resources for animals."^[65]

Second, because of the single way to become an official, only those who have passed the imperial examination can become officials, and many people have the idea that being an official can make a fortune, so some scholars have abnormal values, which has led to some family and social tragedies.

Third, the imperial examination system led to official corruption. With the advancement of the historical wheel, the imperial examination system became politicized, Master Tiandi The education of the school led to the prevalence of the relationship between teachers and students. This has resulted in a serious phenomenon of school nepotism. These school relationships form cliques with each other in the officialdom, and the officialdom protects each other. Great corrupt officials during the reign of Emperor Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty Ho Shen Is the best example. He hid everything from the sky by the favor of Emperor Qianlong, accepted bribes, and was extremely rich. Moreover, he repeatedly used the imperial examination questions as bait to collect bribes from examinees. This is not conducive to building a fair, fair and open social system. It caused the darkness of officialdom and social chaos.

Foreign influence

China's scientific examination system has also had an indelible impact on European and American countries. Historian, part-time professor of School of Language and Culture, Nanjing University of Information Engineering Ni Fangliu He said that as early as 100 years ago, the forerunner of China's democratic revolution Sun Yat-sen Sir, he pointed out that almost all the systems in various countries nowadays are modeled on those in Britain. Tracing back to the origin of poverty, the British examination system was originally learned from China. What Sun Yat sen said is based on facts, not assumptions.^[92]

In the 14th century, European visitors to China introduced and recommended in detail the talent selection model of China's passing the imperial examination, that is, the unified examination. Among them, the British people were most interested in this. "The British academic circles and enlightened officials at that time strongly advocated imitating the Chinese civil service in selecting talents, with equal opportunities and public examinations. In 1853, the British royal family appointed Sir Charles Trovellian and Sir Stamford Northcott to be responsible for British Civil Service Reform and drafting of plans. Later, they submitted the Report on the Establishment of the British Permanent Civil Service System to the Congress. The main point of the report was to suggest learning from and implementing the Chinese imperial examination system, and recruiting officials through open and competitive examinations. "^[92]

According to Ni Fangliu, the report of the two knights was adopted by the British Parliament. Since then, many European and American countries, such as France and the United States, have "taken over" China's examination system. "The Europeans and Americans believed that the imperial examination was more advanced and fair than their employment models such as' leaders have the say 'and' hereditary 'at that time. China's imperial examination had many advantages. At least it made officials attach importance to the study of cultural knowledge, which could create a group of high-quality officials." "Some people in the West were amazed that China's imperial examination system was a great system at that time." Ni Fangliu said, They believe that this system should be as important an invention as the "Four Great Inventions" invented by the ancient Chinese, and it has influenced the global outlook on employment until now and in the future.^[92]

The European and American people transformed the imperial examination, a talent selection method invented by the Chinese, into an examination mode that made the Chinese inventor turn back to learn and "learn from". Western integration industrial revolution And the needs of democracy and human rights. The content of the exam is rich and scientific. The intellectual level, knowledge structure, practical skills and psychological quality are all included in the content of the exam. In addition to the written examination, the most important thing in the European and American "imperial examination" is the establishment of the oral examination and interview system, which is more perfect and scientific than the "palace examination" in China, which is ordered by the emperor himself. Even if the "imperial examinations" in Europe and the United States are passed successfully, they may not be able to obtain official positions and honors like Chinese students (Juren) immediately. Wearing red flowers and riding a big horse will also require internships and probation. At least half a year later, they can officially take the post of "official".^[92]

Celebrity evaluation

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Bai Juyi : Only by being impartial, we think we should make a choice.^[66]

Tang Xuanzong : You can take the exam only in Zhigong.^[67]

Song Xiance "In the Ming Dynasty, the national politics was mistaken for re establishing the discipline and following the qualifications. It was because the country broke down and the family died, and there was little loyalty. Who was the official minister of the Manchu Dynasty who did not enjoy the high rank and high salary of the imperial court? Once the monarch and father were in trouble, everyone thought about protecting themselves." The new comer said, "It is really not easy for me to gain fame. Twenty years of hard work in the light window helped me win the top of the veil. If nothing is done, how can I die?". The old minister also said, "It's not easy for me to be the best official. After 20 years of careful career, I got this position. If the minister is not alone, I will die alone." This qualification is not acceptable. Both of them said that the fame was earned by themselves, so they didn't love wearing the imperial court. No wonder they abandoned the old and changed the new, which was irrelevant. It can be seen that such employment does not show the kindness of the imperial court to the scholars, but it is not stupid to punish them for their service.^[96]

Deng Siyu As for the Tang Dynasty, the first criterion was the examination, and then the common people had the opportunity to participate in politics. The class concept was based on which to break.^[64]

Qian Mu The purpose of this system (imperial examination system) is to use an objective examination standard to constantly select outstanding members of society and make them participate in national politics. Another advantage of this system is that it enables candidates to hold an ultimatum and run for election in public, which can avoid the choice of the local regime that the procuratorial system of the Han Dynasty must go through. Under this system, the existence of social classes can be fundamentally dissolved. It can promote the cultural progress of the whole society. It can cultivate the national people's interest in politics and enhance their patriotism. We can unite all regions of the country under the rule of one central government.^[64]

Korea Pioneer Because "the imperial examination system really gave small and medium-sized landlords the opportunity to be born", "thus it eased the internal contradictions of the landlord class".^[64]

Zhang Xuan : The imperial examination is the public of the world; Imperial examination is private, what is public?^[68]

Li Weiran: The imperial examination also has its best points, so it is fair.^[69]

Sun Yat-sen The imperial examination system is "civilian politics", which is superior to "democratic politics" and is "extremely equal politics".^[81]

Liu Haifeng: In terms of its impact on world civilization, the imperial examination system can be called China's fifth greatest invention.^[70]

He Zhongli: Although the imperial examination system has its drawbacks, it gives the candidates the opportunity to compete fairly, which has undeniable advantages in mobilizing the positive factors of people and widely collecting talents. The power of selecting candidates by examination lies in the country. The candidates are selfless and benevolent, and those who are dismissed have no resentment. It is also conducive to social stability and political clarity.^[64]

Ren Jiyu We should learn the way of the imperial examination in the past to reform China's education. The content of the imperial examination changed with the times. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang began to take the eight part essay examination. The content was rather stale, but it was not the imperial examination system that was stale. This system is very advanced. The British civil service system is famous and advanced in the world. The British themselves said that I learned from the Chinese imperial examination and introduced it. The book clearly says that the United States learns from Britain.^[71]

Shen Jianshi The imperial examination system used an objective examination standard to select talents to participate in national politics; It is the fundamental dissolution of the existence of social classes; Is to promote social and cultural progress; It is the driving force to cultivate the national people's interest in politics and increase their patriotism; It is a unified organization to promote national politics. Even the imperial examination in the Qing Dynasty was entirely due to the content of the examination, not the examination itself.^[64]

Ren Jiyu: The disadvantage of selecting candidates with eight part essay lies in the government's regulations on "making statements on behalf of sages", which has imprisoned the candidates' thoughts. The eight part essay was guilty and the imperial examination system was not responsible.^[72]

a leading authority on Ming history The imperial examination system during the five or six hundred years of the Ming and Qing dynasties committed great evils in the history of China's cultural and academic development, fettered people's intelligence, hindered the development of science, suppressed ideas, separated people from reality, production, read dead books, learned stereotyped writing, and wrote empty words, killing and killing people.^[80]

Shang Yanliu : There is only dross in the imperial examination.^[73]

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