In the discussion of native language movement by linguists, the two most frequently mentioned languages areHebrewAnd Irish.However, the former is usually regarded as one of the few successful mother tongue movements, while the latter's mother tongue movement is regarded by many scholars as a failure example.
irishalphabetIt is divided into new spelling and old spelling.
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Map of Ireland
Irish is the number one language in Irelandofficial language。The Constitution recognizes that,EnglishIt is the second official language.As Ireland's first official language, Irish belongs to the so-called“Celtic languages”, andGaelic、WelshandBrittanyClose relationship.
The ancestors of the Irish were mainlyceltic Gaelic people of tribal groups, and Iberiansnormans And Anglo Saxon elements.IberianIt is the earliest resident of Ireland Island, fromPyrenees Peninsula。In the 4th century BC, the Gaelic peopleSouthern FranceAnd northern SpainIreland(Some scholars believe that these Gaelic people came fromScotland）。They assimilated the Iberians living there and becameIrelandThe foundation of the nation (Mu Lili 2000).MajorityhistorianIt is believed that around the 7th century BC, Irish people began to settle on the island of Ireland and engaged inagricultural productionAnd feedinglivestock。Therefore, Irish has a long history.
After Ireland merged into the United Kingdom, English gradually occupied a dominant position.Before the 19th century, most Irish people spoke Irish, but by 1891 more than 85% of them only spoke English.After Ireland was incorporated into Britain in the 17th century, English gradually became dominant.In 1893, the Gaelic Union was established to promoteGaelicLanguage and culture.Ireland became independent in 1922, and Irish was used againSchooling。The state actively encourages people to useIrelandLanguage.Today, many people speak Irish in Irish speaking areas (mainly on the west coast).Today, Irish is spoken in primary and secondary schoolscore curriculumMore and more schools only teach in Irish.Among millions of people in the country, Gaelic language users are still a minority (about 500000 people), but various Gaelic language publications are increasing.This language is revivingnational consciousnessRole of.Modern Irish has 15 vowels: i:i、e:、e、a:、a、o:、o、u:、u、ai、au、í、ú。5Elementary voweli. E, a, o and u have their own advantages and disadvantages;The first two pairs areToneless, the last three pairs are Hong Yin, used for nonAccented syllable。Consonants include pt、k、b、d、g、m、n、R、f、s、x、 γ、w、h。There are two accent values, namely“soft palateSound quality "and“Hard palateSound quality ".Hard palate sound quality is фθ、x、β、γ、μ、l、r、f、∫、"Field", "j", "v", only "h" has no different pronunciation, and the sound quality of hard palate plays a role in meaning discrimination.For example, é an [e: n] (bird, singular) - é in [e:] (bird, plural).Irish andbritish islesotherceltic Like language, there is a systematic "head tone alternation" sound change.IrishInflectionIt is the most complex in Celtic languages: verbs include person, number, time, form, and state (active, automatic) changes; nouns, adjectives, andDefinite articleThere are also changes in sex, number and lattice.Nouns have four cases.Personal pronounIn addition to being used alone, there are special forms combined with verbs or prepositions.Sententialword orderThe verb precedes the subject.Predicates are often used in composite forms, such as t á im tar é is ligean "I am allowed after" (I have already allowed).The oldest literature in Irish can be seen in the 4th to 8th centuries. It is an inscription written in the Ogham alphabet.After the 5th century, two Irish characters appeared.The earlier one has a special font, for example, d is horizontal;The other is the same as ordinary letters.Both texts are used at the same time.
Irish has a long history and rich literatureceltic All languages have special value.
Irish alphabet
The "18 Irish alphabet" adopted by Irish today includes: A á B C D E é F G H I í L M N O ó P R S T U ú
irish
The remaining 8 letters are only used for foreign words.
In addition, the "weakening" of grammar is still regarded as one letter in grammar, even though it is two letters in modern writing, and it is also one letter in old writing.
Old style
Ḃ
Ċ
Ḋ
Ḟ
Ġ
Ṁ
Ṗ
Ṡ
Ṫ
neographism
Bh
Ch
Dh
Fh
Gh
Mh
Ph
Sh
Th
50. The three letters N and R cannot be weakened.
Irish International Phonetic Alphabet
Standard consonant: p ˠ b ˠ f ˠ w/v m ˠ t ˠ d ˠ s ˠ n ˠ r ˠ l ˠ k g x ŋ 614
Jawed consonant: p ʲ b ʲ f ʲ v ʲ m ʲ t ʲ d ʲ f n ʲ r ʲ l ʲ c ɟ ç j ɲ
althoughIrelandIrish people had settled down before BC, but the written records related to Irish language did not appear until about the 4th century AD.The earliest extant record of Irish language was found on a special stone called "Ogham". Through the inscriptions on these stones, linguists can find andPrimitive IrishSome clues related.
In 432 AD, St. Patrick arrived in Ireland from the European continent, and began the process of transforming these Irish people into Christians.It is generally believed that St. Patrick was the first person to introduce the alphabet to Ireland.Through these written records written in letters, such as some poems written by Irish missionaries on the edge of the scriptures (among which Books of Kells is the most famous), we can speak some of the early CeltsLiterary tradition, to some extent.
In fact, from the point of view of written literature,Irish LiteratureIts history is quite long.Bradaigh (2000) believed that the earliest written literature that can be found in Europe was classical literature in the 8th century BCGreek It was written around the first century BCLatinWritten works.andWestern EuropeThe third written literary tradition that has emerged is that of writing in Irishoral literature Works.
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Pete people
After the Irish became Christians, with the expansion of their footprints, they began toScotlandNew strongholds were established in the south, and their culture and language were introduced to the Pits who originally lived there. On the other hand, they also began to convert these Pits into Christians.Around the middle of the 6th century, Irish people had exerted considerable influence in Scotland in terms of politics, military, culture, language and other aspects.To this day, in Scotland“Scottish Gaelic”We can also find many words similar to Irish.In fact, the term "scot" was originally used by the Romans to address the Gaelic people who invaded from Ireland to Scotland, and later became a description of "Irish overseasabroad）”A word of.
Around the 9th century AD, Irish had expanded toScotlandMost ofEnglandNorth of, andMan Island(the Isle of Man).852 AD, fromNorthern EuropeThe Vikings invaded Ireland, and the two sides launched a war in 914 that lasted almost 100 years.Anyway, when the VikingsDublinBy the time the neighborhood was defeated, Irish had become Irish and Scottishdominating language , which can almost be regarded as the peak of Irish language development in history.
English Invasion
Norman Conquest
In 1169, it suffered“Norman ConquestNorman ConquestIrelandThe Irish also launchedHistory of Ireland800 years of resistance.In 1171, Henry officially became the monarch of Ireland (Bradaigh 2000; Dukun 2000).Most of the invaders who crossed the sea from England usedNormanFrench (Norman French), a few in English.Because their number is not too large, the main area affected is near Dublin. As for other areas in Ireland, Irish is still the main language used by the people.
However, with the deepening of English rule, at least on the political level, English has gradually replaced Irish.In 1367, the English passed the "Statistics of Kilkenny Act", the main purpose of which was to anglicize Ireland and try to suppress Irish language and habits (Bradaigh 2000).In 1601, the Irish's attempt to resist Britain failed again. After that year, the strength of the Irish local nobility was almost completely disintegrated.In 1641, the Irish again broke out a resistance movement, this time withcatholicFor the UKprotestantThe resistance as the main axis.In 1649,Cromwell(Oliver Cromwell) led the British army to suppress the uprising, and the whole Ireland was finally completely under British rule in essence (Wikipedia 2005b; O'Donnaile nd; Du Kun 2000).
In this case, roughly around 1800, EnglishIrelandIt has become an absolutely powerful language.stayIrelandAlmost anyone who enjoys political, social, economic and cultural power uses English, not Irish.Even so, the Irish language still has about 4 million users, but most of them are peasants belonging to the lower class.
However, two events in the first half of the 19th century almost completely uprooted the Irish language from Ireland. One was the primary education system implemented in 1831, and the other broke out in 1845Great Famine 。In 1831, the British government began to establish the so-called“National education system”English is the media language of the education system.Although Irish is the mother tongue of more than half of the children in the family, Irish is not allowed to appear in the education system.If students talk in Irish, they will not only be laughed at and humiliated by the teacher, but also be asked to hang a warning sign "Never speak Irish again" around their neck (Bradaigh 2000; Shi Zhengfeng 2002).Bradaigh (2000) commented on the so-called“National school”"This is not a 'national' school at all.".
famine
Great Famine
In 1845,IrelandIt is estimated that 1.5 million people have been killed and more than 1 million people have been forced to leave their homesAmerica(Du Kun 2000).The famine had a great impact on Ireland.As the famine occurred in the poorest areas in Ireland, and these areas also happened to be the areas where the Irish language was used, the real population using the Irish language decreased significantly in a short time.
Revival movement
Announce
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The rise of the middle class
O'Connor
Despite such disadvantages, some Irish people still adhere to their own language to a certain extent, and even in the middle of the 19th century, modernIrish nationalism。The reasons for this phenomenon are mainly due to the agitation of the trend of thought of the times andIrelandmiddle classThe rise of.just asZhou Huimin(1998) pointed out that "after the 19th century, due to theeconomic activityThe content ofsocial structureRapid changes have taken place, and the demand for politics has also changed greatly. The idea of striving for civil rights has sprung up all over Europe,French RevolutionIs an example,GermanyRegional and evenEnglandThere is also a movement of workers and farmers, and Ireland is certainly not immune. "
Withmodern educationWith the popularization of, many middle-class Irish children also began to engage in knowledge activities, and these intellectuals became the pursuitEthnic equalityDaniel O'Connell is the best example of the main driving force of.As a lawyer, O'Connor is basically a pacifist and always hopes toWithin the systemTo fight for Irish rights.However, his request was not metLondonThe new generation ofNational movementThey also advocated taking more active actions to fight for freedom,IrelandThe general direction of the national movement then slowly changed and began to appearOutside the systemTo strive for an independent voice.
Around 1830Continental EuropeThere is a revolutionary trend,Belgium, France, Germany and other places have taken place anti royal actions, and Irish youth have also been affected by the trend, following the practice of Italy, established“Young Ireland(Young Ireland), hoping to overthrow the British rule by force.They broke out a brief revolution in 1848, but were then suppressed by the authorities.
It's in thisnationalismUnder the high atmosphere, some knowledgeable Irish people started the revival of Irish.
The Renaissance
Union of Ireland[1]
In 1884, "IrelandSports Association(Gaelic Athletic Association)“Irish RenaissanceGaelic Revival "kicked off the Irish language movement.In 1893, the "Conradh na Gaeilge" with the main goal of revitalizing the Irish language was officially established under the call of the Irish writer Douglas Hyde.The Alliance has two main objectives: first, to preserve Irish asnational languageAnd promote it to becomeordinary language；Second, research and cultivateIrish Literature。The "Irish Union" strongly advocates the local language, music, dance, drama, customs, etc.Hyde once made a famous speech "The Necessity of Relieving Anglicization", pointing out that giving up the Irish language is equivalent to giving up the self-esteem of an independent nation.At the same time, however, he also stated that the removal of Anglicism was not against learning the strengths of the British, but to warn the Irish that it would be foolish to forget the characteristics of Ireland and arbitrarily imitate the British.
Alliance development
The "Irish Union" has developed rapidly. In just five years, there have been 600 registered branches offering various Irish language teaching courses free of charge.As a result of the strong advocacy of the Alliance, literary works using Irish as the writing medium also began to appear, especially in the writing of short stories, Irish writers have quite beautiful transcripts.In addition, journals and newspapers printed in Irish also began to appear in Ireland. These publications played an important role in the promotion of Irish. In 1904, the famous experimental theatre Abbey Theatre was launched inDublinFounded, this is the most influential theatre in the drama of the whole Irish Renaissance.The predecessor of the theater is the W. G. Fay's Irish National Dramatic Company led by William and Frank Fay, and it was founded by poet William Butler Yeats and playwrightMrs GregoryThe Irish Literary Theatre founded by Lady Augusta Gregory and others was later merged intoAbbe TheatreAs an experimental position.Abbe Theater insists on performing Ye Ci and Singer（John Millington Synge）、Okhesi(Sean O'Casey) and other playwrightsIrish DramaThe Abbe Theatre has won a reputation throughout Europe.
EamondeValera
Under such an ideological trend of the times, Irish became a compulsory subject in Irish primary and secondary schools in 1909. The newly established National University of Ireland in that year stipulated that understanding Irish was one of the admission conditions for students.At the same time, this language movement, which pursues national dignity in culture and art, is also, to a considerable extent, similar to the risingIrelandThe political movement has a fairly close relationship.Many participants in the language movement, such as Liam Mac Cosguir, Earna'n de Blaghd and others, not only actively pursue independenceRepublic of IrelandAt the same time, it also played an important role in the political arena after the independence of Ireland.
After independence
Since 1922Irish Free StateSince its establishment, all new civil servants of the Republic of Ireland must have a certain level of Irish language, including postal workers, tax collectors, agricultural inspectors, Irish police, etc.According to the law, if an Irish policeman is stopped to ask for directions in Irish, he must also respond in Irish.
