Sanskrit language,DevanagariWritten: स्कृतावाक्,latin alphabetTranscribed: sa ṃ sk ṛ t v k, referred to as स ् क ृ त ्, sa ṃ sk ṛ tam),Indian languageone of.
Sanskrit is now the statutory 22 languages in Indiaofficial languageIt is one of the most popular languages in India, but it is no longer the language of daily life. In 2001, only 14000 people mastered the language, which is the least widely used language among the official languages of India. Strictly speaking, Sanskrit andLatin、Ancient ChineseIt has been studied by linguisticsliving fossil。
Modern Sanskrit is written from left to rightPinyin charactersIn the early 19th century, European scholars developed Devanagari intoMechanical printingStandard body ofalphabetIt consists of 48 symbols, 34 of which are consonants and 14 are vowels orDiphthong。
In the late 18th century, Sanskrit was already usedlatin alphabetThe most commonly used system today is IAST (International Sanskrit Transcription).
With modern timescomputer technologyThe standardized Sanskrit can not only be input convenientlycomputer systemIt can also be translated into multiple languages, facilitating the study of linguistics and religion.
Modern research shows that Sanskrit andPhoenician(ModernEuropeOriginal form of characters), both ofsemitic Text system.
Around 700 BC, Indian merchants andMesopotamiaThe local people (a branch of the Semitic people) contacted and transmitted the 22 Semitic letters to India.
About 400 BC, after the Indian collation, about 40 letters were made, namely Brahmi（latin alphabetTranscription: Br hm ī, English: BrahmiBrahmilipi、Bragmi）Handwriting。
Brāhmī script It is not strictly Sanskrit, but a common saying, but it is indeed the first written evidence of Sanskrit, and most of itHindiOrigin of.
In early Sanskrit, there was no written form of expressionBrahmanismIn the process of secularization, the language taught orally by means of religious codes and ceremonies had a written form around the 4th century BC, andJainismBuddhismhinduismetc.Religious Text And literature.
In the 6th century BC, when Sakyamuni founded Buddhism, as a new religious doctrine against the tradition of Brahmanism, it clearly stipulated the use of BuddhismPali(pali) Missionary.
According to the literal meaning of Sanskrit, it is "completely sorted", that is, well sorted language, which is an elegant and pure expression rather than secular language.
To SanskritEvolution processShould not be separated from othersAncient IndiaAs a special language, the ability to correctly listen to and speak Sanskrit at that time was indeed one of the symbols of the high hereditary class in ancient Indian society.
Sanskrit has always maintained its oral tradition for a long time.But research shows that even so, there are still four major dialects in classical Sanskrit, namely pa ś cimottar ī (northwest), madhyade ś ī (central), p ṣ rvi (east) and dak ṣ i ṇ (south, inClassical periodRise).The predecessor of the first three can eventhe VedasSanskritThe first one is the most authentic.
In the early use of Sanskrit, on the one hand, it tried to maintain its elegance, on the other hand, it had to cooperate with variousancient IndiaThe coexistence and evolution of the colloquial expressions ofwritten languageOnly at this time can Sanskrit be synonymous with Sanskrit.
When Sanskrit was written down, it was first used for administrative, literary or scientific texts.The religious text of Brahmanism is still passed down orally, and it was "unwillingly" written down quite late.
At the same time, Prakrit is also popular in the north and west of India, which originally means a common saying and is considered to bePaliThe origin of the Pali languageWritten formIt is not earlier than Brahmi, so it can be concluded that early Buddhism also adopted oral teaching, and the earliest written records should start fromThird EpisodePeriod.
In India, the choice of Sanskrit writing system is influenced by the region where the scribe is located.
With the different times and places, calligraphy and font also gradually produce differences.
Around the first century AD, Sanskrit characters in the north gradually became square, and Sanskrit characters in the south gradually became round.
By the fourth century, the differences between the two had become extremely obvious, and eventually evolved into various languages belonging to the Indo Aryan branch.
Roughly speaking, the square font evolved from the 4th to 8th century A.DGupta script（Gupta）。
In the 7th century, it evolved into Nagari style, and was finallyDevanagari Instead, Sanskrit is frozen.
In fact, there are many variations in the evolution from Gupta to Tiancheng, which have the greatest impact on ChinaShi Tanwen, which will be further discussed below.The interaction between Sanskrit and various northern Indian sayings has resulted in the following modern Indian official languages:Hindi, BengaliMarathi、Gujarati、NepaliEtc.
The Gupta text mentioned above is rightChinese Buddhism Great impact,Eastern Jin DynastyA large number of Buddhist scriptures translated by Kumarash during the period, and the followingFaxianWhen Dharma Masters went to India to seek Dharma, they used this style of Sanskrit.And this kind of writing is popular inqiuci, Khotan, etcFuhuolu(in the 6th – 8th century AD), became Yanqiqiuci、nomadic people living in Central Asia, KangjuFerghanaEtcLanguages。In short, the formation of ancient characters in Central Asian countries was greatly influenced by Sanskrit.
In the 6th century AD, derived from Gupta charactersEpiphyllum body(Siddham), which means "achievement" in Sanskrit, is one of the main trends in the evolution of Sanskrit writingTransitional stateBut it is the Sanskrit popular in India during Master Xuanzang's westward journey in the early Tang Dynasty. It was named after Master Xuanzang's "Xitan Zhang", which was introduced to India for Sanskrit teaching, and has remained in China and Japan until now, becoming a unique genre of Sanskrit.
Later Buddhism Esoteric Sect strictly required that true words be recited in Sanskrit pronunciation, which triggered the study of Sanskrit pronunciation after the Sui and Tang dynasties. By analyzing the structure of Sanskrit initials and vowels, scholars produced the pronunciation of Chinese charactersReverse phonetic notationThus expanding the spread of Chinese.
In the Song DynastyDevanagariSanskrit was once popular in Han, Liao and Dali, and now it is completely preserved in Jingyou Tianzhu Ziyuan printed in 1035 AD, and spread to South Korea and Japan.
Thick and beautifulLanzatiLetters are popular inTibetandNepal, and along with the Chinese Qing DynastyRuling classyesTibetan BuddhismThe belief of "Li" is popular in the Han Dynasty of China.
Tibet also uses a letter called Wade script to write Sanskrit, which is actually a headless variant of Lanza script.Tibetan, MongolianTotemun、Manchu scriptEach has its own system of writing Sanskrit.
As we all know, many Chinese words are derived fromSanskritBuddhist scriptureDirectly transliterated.At the beginning of the 20th century, these phonetic materials provided materials for the study of determining the pronunciation of ancient Chinese characters, and became an important tool of Chinese phonology -- one of the basic phonetic materials of phonetics.
As a palace language, Sanskrit attaches great importance to the standardization of languageDeclaratologyIt is the grammatical theory of Sanskrit.
The oldest existing Sanskrit grammar isBojuni(written in Tiancheng style: पाणनननन, transliterated from Latin alphabet: P ṇṇ ini)《Eight chapter book》(A ṣṭṭṭ dhy y ī), formed in about the 4th century BC, Master Xuanzang《Records of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty》This is described in.BojuniGrammar is normative in nature, which defines rather than describes the correct use of Sanskrit.
Some of the followingIndian Epic, terminology deviationBojuniThe rules of Sanskrit grammar should be interfered by the common sayings or innovated, which reflects the characteristics of the development of Sanskrit grammar.butBojuniThe basic paradigm formulated is still the basis of Sanskrit grammar today.
Written by Master Xuanzang in the 7th century《Records of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty》Volume II, andYijingWritten by a mage《Nanhai Guigui Neifa Zhuan》In Volume IV, it is recorded that Xitanzhang is an enlightenment book for Indian children aged 6-7 to learn Sanskrit, including learning firstSanskrit Letter(47 records of Xuanzang, 49 records of Yijing), and then through the method of "combining things and changing things" to teach grammar, there are 12 chapters (Xuanzang) or 18 chapters (Yijing) of different textbooks, which need to study for 6 monthsConclusion。
36 classical SanskritPhoneme。But because the Sanskrit writing system shows someAllophone, so 48 voices are distinguished.
phonemeTraditionally, according to the vowel (aC),Diphthong(haL), anusv ra and visarga,Stope(Spar ś a) and nasal sounds (moving forward from the back of the mouth), and the finalStreaming soundAndFricativeOrder of.
Vowel system
consonant
consonant system
Stope
Stope
Non stop sound
Non stop sound
Sanskrit, Hindi and all othersIndian languageThere is a whole group of stops, which appear asDullnessAnd voiceless, with or without aspiration.
In addition, Sanskrit has another feature different from other Indo European languages, that is, sandhi, that is, when a final letter of a word is together with the first letter of a word in a sentence, corresponding changes will occur;In a word, if a letter and a letter conform to a certain positional relationship, the corresponding inflection should also be carried out.In Sanskrit, there are many and long compound words. When writing, they should be basically connected. When writing, the letters should become connected, with the middle inflection.
Verb transpositionIncluding singular, even and plural numbers;There are first, second and third person;Time is divided into present tense, unfinished tense, perfect tense, indefinite past tense, future tense and assumed tense;voiceThere are initiative (for others), middle (for oneself) and passivity;The tone can be divided into direct tone, praying tone and commanding tone.
Temporal system
Verb tense(The use of this word is not precise, because Sanskrit is more different than simple tenses.)intransitive verbRoot) differenceStemmingAnd organized into four systems（GerundandInfinitiveSame, and evolved from more basic form to enhanced form（intensive）/Iterative form（frequentative）, wishful style（desiderative）, Causative（causative）And benedictive).The four temporal systems are:
The present tense system includes present tense and unfinished tense, imperative tense and imperative tense, and some remnants of the ancient virtual tense.The tense stems of the present tense system are formed in various ways.The number is given by local grammarians.
3. The root word is repeated as a prefix, for example, juhu comes from hu "sacrifice".
7. Add before the final consonant of the root wordInfixNa or n (with appropriate connectionSound change）For example, rundh or ru ṇ adh comes from rudh "obstruct blocking".
5. nu (gu ṇ a form no) suffix, for example, sunu comes from su“pressOut squeezing juice ".
8. u (gu ṇ a form o) suffix, for example, tanu comes from tan“stretchStretching ".
9. n A (zero level n ī or n) suffix, such as kr ī ṇ a or kr ī ṇ ī from kr ī“buyBuy ".
For thematic verbs, the present tense stem can be formed in the following ways:
1. The word dry vowel a suffix, with gu ṇ a force, for example, bhava comes from bhru "be in, have".
6. The word stem vowel a suffix, with the stress transferred to this vowel, for example, tuda comes from tud "thrust".
4. The ya suffix, for example, divya comes from div "play".
As for the tenth kind of formation, it is a form that can be naturally derived, so it is not the true formation of tense stems.It is formed by adding force to the final vowel gu ṇ a of the root word or lengthening v ṛ ddhi plus the suffix ya. For example, bh vaya comes from bh, "be in, have".
System at completion
At completion, the system only includes the completions.The word stem is formed by repetition like the present tense stem.
The perfect tense system also divides verbs into "strong" and "weak" forms: the strong form is used for the singularactive, and the weak form is used for other forms.
Indefinite past tense system
The indefinite past tense system includes real indefinitepast tense(with the meaning of past statements, such as abh ḥḥ "you were") and some forms of ancient prohibitions (specifically used in prohibitions through m ḥ, such as m ḥ bh ḥ "don't be").The fundamental difference between the two is with/without augment, that is, a - prefixed to the stem.In fact, the stem of the indefinite past tense system has three different forms: simple indefinite past tense, sibilant past tense, and semanticallyCausative verbThe related repeated past tense.
Future tense system
The future tense system is formed by the suffix sya or i ṣ ya and gu ṇ a.The verbs then transpose, as if they were thematic verbs in the present tense system.The unfinished form of the future tense is used as a conditional form.
Verb transposition
All verbs have threevoice: active voicepassiveAnd the middle voice (that is, the reflexive voice).There is also the non personal voice, which can be described asintransitive verbThe passive voice of.
Sanskrit verbs have three moods, namely, the direct tone, the praying tone and the imperative tone.The ancient forms of this language includesubjunctive, but it was no longer used in the classical Sanskrit era.
In Sanskrit, the inflection suffix conveys person, number and voice.Different forms of suffixes are used according to what tense stem and mood they are attached to.The verb stem or suffix itself may be changed or blurred due to the connected sound change.
noun
Sanskrit is rich inInflectionGrammatically, it has three characters (masculine, feminine and neuter) and three numbers (singular, even and plural).
actualVariable latticeThe number of is controversial.BojuniIdentify six k rakas, which correspond to the nominative, objective, instrumental, dative, deviant and azimuth lattices.BojuniThey are defined as follows (Ashtadhyayi, I.4.24 – 54):
Kart ("agent"): "the agent in action".It is equivalent to the main lattice.（On the basis of Scharfe, 1977: 94）
Karman ("died/object"): "The agent mainly seeks the achiever".It is equivalent to the accusative.
Karaṇa（“instrument”）"Use it to achieve results".Equivalent to tool lattice.
Sampradāna（“bestowal”）: "Target of the object".It is equivalent to dative, and it represents the acceptor of giving or similar actions.
Apādāna（lit.“take off”）: "When leaving (occurring) (in) a fixed person".It is equivalent to an off grid and represents the fixed object from which the motion starts.
Adhikara ṇ a ("location"): or "substratum".It is equivalent to the orientation lattice.
syntax
Because Sanskrit has a complicated ending change system, itsword orderIt is free.There is more subject object predicate (SOV) tendency in use, which is derived fromthe VedasThe first in prosestructural system。However, with certain exceptions, not every pair of words can be transposed at this time.
Language spread
Announce
edit
Sanskrit
European interest in Sanskrit began in the 16th century.
When European missionaries and businessmen began to learn Sanskrit, they gradually realized that there were extensive similarities between Indian Sanskrit and European Latin, Greek and other languages.
From the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century,sanskrit literature The work attracted the attention of European scholars and began to use modern sciencemethod studySanskrit.In fact, Indian ancient grammariansBojuni(Panini) As early as the 4th century BCLanguage characteristicsIt is analyzed and summarized.
It is generally believed that Bojuni lived in the 4th century BC and was born todayPakistanOfPeshawarNearby.
The earliest extant record of him can be found in the famous monk Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty《Records of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty》In the second volume, Xuanzang said that a city in Gandhara "was the birthplace of Bo Youni Immortal in the" Statement Theory ". He went on to say that in ancient times, the characters were numerous and varied, and it was difficult for learners to study them in detail.When we reach the age of 100, we will pay attention to the words of others asCalligraphyThere are a thousand chants and thirty-two words of praise,Ultima In modern times and ancient times, classical Chinese is included.But yesBojuniI didn't talk about my life in detail.
Before Pojni, IndiaGrammarIt has a long history, and Pokyuni is a master.He left behind a book, "The Sutra of Bo You Ni", because it has eight chapters, also known as《Eight chapter book》That is, Xuanzang's so-called "Statement Theory" is a study of SanskritStandard。
The nearly 4000 pithy formula in the Boyouni Sutra contains a complete and scientific grammar system.The arrangement of letters is also very scientific.Vowels followed by consonants, according toArticulatory siteandPronunciation methodArrangement (the same is true for Sanskrit dictionaries today).This sort of order is better than Greek, LatinArabicAnd all the Western languagesLanguage systemOfalphabetIt is more reasonable.
Sanskrit
With regard to the grammatical structure of Sanskrit, Pokyuni is characterized by analysis.
He came fromVoice analysisFirst, do not analyze sentences, only analyze words;Regardless of the semantics, the analysis object is the form.
At the end of the analysis is the root word, that is, the so-called "boundary".When it is added to "jie" to make it a word, or to make it show all the relations of nouns, verbs, etc., it is called "yuan", that is, a direct suffix.Therefore, the basic formula of word formation is boundary+edge=word.
The final root of this analysis is all verbs. In other words, only the root of the verb is the final component.Nouns are derived from verbs.The process of an action is expressed with a verb. Once the action is completed and the action is fixed, it becomes a thing and is expressed with a noun.Nouns are derived from verbsUniversal principlesHe was soon challenged by Jaroga.He objected to such a blunt applicationetymology。
Jaroga pointed out that if a śśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśś.If nothing should be named after its action, then existence (bh va) should precede things.
As for Jaroga's opposition, Bo Youni made some concessions and excluded words that are difficult to derive from form and meaning, such as a śśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśśś.This kind of original nouns had been collected as a list before Pokyuni, and they were forced to form by the root of the verb plus some special suffixes. The first suffix of this kind is u, the proper name u ṇ, the full name u ṇ di, "Unadi".Bojuni said that such words are ready-made stemsWord formationirrelevant.
Since Bokuni's book acquired its classical value very early, it has lasted for at least 2000 years. It has always been the standard for the use of Sanskrit and the foundation for learning it.
Later, with the development of grammar, people began to make amendments and supplements to its rules. For example, Anonymous's "Shi Du" was the first book to give a systematic and accurate explanation of it.[1]
18th century EnglishOrientalismscholarJonesSir William Jones proposed the famous "Indo European Hypothesis" to explain theSimilarity。
In 1786, heAsiaIn an academic speech of the Research Association, it was pointed out that Sanskrit and GreeceLatinContact.He said: "The root of the Sanskrit verb andGrammatical formIt is no accident that it resembles Greek and Latin.
Anyone who has examined these three languageslinguistIt is necessary to think that all three come from the same source.However, the original language may no longer exist in the world.At the same time, there are reasons to assume (although the reasons are not enough),gothic 、CelticAlthough different from Sanskrit in appearance, it is still homologous with Sanskrit, andfarsiIt also belongs to the same language family. "This "original language" is what people later saidProto-Indo-European。
Sanskrit
Later, European linguists raised Jones' empirical insights to scientific arguments.
DenmarkRK.LaskerHe explored the Origin of Old Norse and Icelandic Language (1818).
F. Bopp, a German scholar, on Sanskrit verb displacement system and GreekLatinA Comparison of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German (1816) is the first time that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German all came from the same source.
Jones called“Similarities”By this time, it had developed into a corresponding relationship.
German linguist J. GreenBrothers GreenHis brother)《Deutsche Grammatik 》(1819 – 1837)Sound changeThe law, after being revised, makes the phenomenon originally considered as an exception get a unified explanation.
These three people are recognized as the founders of historical comparative linguistics.
German scholar A. Schleicher is a historianComparative linguisticsOfA masterHe absorbed Hegel'sHistorical philosophyandDarwinHe wrote Introduction to Comparative Grammar of Indo European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin (1874 – 1877), and was the first person to put forward the concept of language pedigree.
K. Brugman and BDelbrukThe five volume Compendium of Comparative Grammar of Indian Germanic Languages (1886 – 1900), co authored, is a masterpiece of this discipline.
All the above scholars started from the field survey of languages, especially Sanskrit, PersianLithuanianAnd other ancient languages.
It can be said that Indo European languagesComparative linguisticsThe emergence and development of Sanskrit benefited from the study and research.Its greatest achievement is togenetic relationshipHave a clear understanding, especially in Indo European languagesPedigree classificationOn the other hand, quite conclusive evidence has been obtained.
Another is to help people understand the original mother tongueManifestationFor example, European scholars now generally believe that the original Indo European mother tongue originated fromBlack SeaThe area to the north.
In terms of literature, the oldestDirect materialIt can be traced back to the 14th century BC or earlierHittite OfCuneiformWritten, but found Hittite and interpreted Mycenae in the early 20th centuryLinear B Previously, it was generally believed thatthe VedasOne of the classics, Rigveda, is the oldest document in the Indo European language family.
Language research
Announce
edit
Sanskrit, an Indo European languageIndicAn ancient language.
Sanskrit in broad sense includes three kinds:
Vedic ——The language of ancient India's four Vedas;
Epic Sanskrit - the language of two epic poems;
Classical Sanskrit - many literary works, includingKali whirlpoolAs well as the language of religious, philosophical and scientific works.
Sanskrit in a narrow sense only refers to classical Sanskrit.
It is said that Sanskrit is standardized by the Eight Chapters of the great Indian grammarian Bojuni in ancient timesliterary language。This is incorrect.The grammar book of Pokyuni is not a branch of Veda, it does not speak Vedic, and it does not speak classical Sanskrit.Compared with classical Sanskrit, the grammatical rules in the book are closer toSanskrit、UpanishadsAnd the language of scriptures.The successor of BojuniKazhanyanIt speaks classical Sanskrit.
Sanskrit
From the original name of Sanskrit sasktam (sorted), Sanskrit seems to be an artificial language.Others believe that Sanskrit was onceLiving language。
In ancient Indian dramas, the gods, kings, Brahmans and other noble figures spoke Sanskrit.However, women and other low-level figures talking to them are only allowed to speak dialects and slang. There is no consensus on this issue up to now.
The second volume of Tang Xuanzang's "Records of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty" said: "See the details of its writing, which was made by Brahma, the original vertical rules, and 47 words" (47 letters).
The word Sanskrit may representIndian languageScholars have long had the idea.However, the word Sanskrit did not exist in China from the beginning. The first volume of Biography of Eminent Monk Liang, Biography of Anqing, said, "So we translated many sutras and changed Hu into Chinese."Ming BenMake "Brahman".Replacing "Hu" with "Sanskrit" indicates that Chinese scholars have a further understanding of Sanskrit.
Linguistic features
Announce
edit
Sanskrit has used some different letters in history.
What is popular in India isDevanagari Devanagari, the words used in the pronunciation system of this entry.
As shown in the picture "Rigveda": Sanskrit written by hand in the 19th century《Rig Veda 》Note that the orthodox Sanskrit writing is that there is no space between words.
Nouns have changes in gender (masculine, feminine, neuter), number (singular, even, plural), and case (physique, karma, specific, positive, subordinate, genitive, dependent, vocative).
The verb conjugation includes singular, even and plural, and the person has the first, secondthird person, time minutePresent tense, unfinished, completed, indefinite pastFuture tenseWhen assuming, the voice can be active, intermediate, passive, and the mood can be declarative, subjunctive, imperativeimperative mood(The subjunctive mood of the indefinite past tense). There are two kinds of endings: primitive and derivative.
Ancient calligraphic style
Announce
edit
During the Tang Dynasty in China, China and India had close exchanges. For example, the famous Master Xuanzang went to the Western Heaven to learn scripturesEpiphyllum bodyThe Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures written in letters were then introduced into the Central Plains, and later in BuddhismSecret DivisionAfter it was introduced into India, the sect strictly required to recite the mantra in Sanskrit, which led to the study of the syllable table for teaching in India《Xitan Character Record》Medium.
Later, it was spread to Japan, whose teachings can be found in Xitan Bu in Dazheng Zang. Therefore, China and Japan still keep the Sanskrit letter Xitan, which is no longer used.
In the Song Dynasty of ChinaDevanagariSanskrit was once popular in Han, Liao and Dali, and now it is completely preserved in Jingyou Tianzhu Ziyuan printed in 1035 AD, and spread to South Korea and Japan.
Thick and beautifulLanzatiLetters are popular inTibetandNepal, and along with the Chinese Qing DynastyRuling classyesTibetan BuddhismThe belief of "Li" is popular in the Han Dynasty of China.
Tibet also uses a letter called Wade script to write Sanskrit, which is actually a headless variant of Lanza script.Tibetan, MongolianTotemun、Manchu scriptEach has its own system of writing Sanskrit.
Documentation
Announce
edit
Among all the ancient languages in the world, the number of Sanskrit documents is second only to Chinese, far more than Greek and Latin, which is extremely rich in content and can be called the treasure shared by mankind.
In addition, it also includes a large number of grammar booksfable storyAnd medicine, natural scienceLiterary theoryAnd other works.
India written in classical Sanskrit (that is, Sanskrit in a narrow sense)Classical literatureHis works are even more brilliant and influential.Many famous writers, such as Paso, Shoutulaja, Kalitadandin , Bona, Subandu, Bodhi, etc., in IndiaLiterary historyUp, Can Ruconstellation。
Most of the classics of Mahayana Buddhism are also written in Sanskrit.There are severalPrimitive BuddhismThe classics of Sanskrit, originally written in common sayings, gradually became Sanskrit, forming a special language - Buddhist Sanskrit or mixed Sanskrit.
From the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 19th century, Sanskrit literature attracted the attention of European scholarsmethod studySanskrit, from now on.
On the other hand, it helped German scholars call itComparative literatureThe discipline of history.From the latter, the comparative literature appeared almost all the rage in the world.
Sanskrit Studies in Ancient China
China has a history of more than 1000 years of translating Buddhist scripturesLanguage characteristicsOf course, great attention is paid, but systematic research is very scarce.Neither translated Sanskrit grammar nor wrote Sanskrit grammar.
In the Tang Dynasty, there appeared a number of books about Sanskrit, such as Zhiguang《Xitan Character Record》，YijingBy《Sanskrit Thousand Word Script》, holomorphic set《Tang Sanskrit》, Ritual Collection《Sanskrit Miscellaneous Names》, Sang Hang Duo Teng Duo, Polo Quna Misesha Collection, Tang Sanskrit Two Language Double Pair Collection, etc.The purpose of these books is to translate Buddhist scriptures.But some of these books only study letters, while others imitate popular Chinese characters《The Thousand Character Classic》The first kind of books only list the words in Sanskrit and Chinese, and do not speak grammar at all.
Yijing said in the preface of Sanskrit Thousand Word Script: "It is not important to use words on the way, but if you learn this, you will be able to understand the rest of the language, which is different from the old thousand word script. If you also know the Tanzhang and read the Sanskrit version, you will be able to translate it in a year or two." However, this is difficult to do.
From《gaosengzhuan 》It can be seen that some Buddhist temples in the Tang Dynasty taught Sanskrit, but we are not clear about what textbooks to use and how to teach them.
Sanskrit is not extinct in India and Nepal. Sanskrit is still one of the officially recognized languages in India (different fromofficial language，Indian ConstitutionIt is stipulated that "the official language of the Federation is the one using the letters of TianchengHindiEnglish is the second most popular language.
There are 22 officially recognized languages in India, which are local languages recognized and valued by Indian officials, although some of them have not gained the status of official languages in any state (different states have different official languages, and the official language of the federation is Hindi).[2]
Sanskrit is the second official language in Uttarakhand (listed after Hindi).
Until the beginning of the 20th century, Sanskrit was one of the official languages of Nepal. Sanskrit and Sanskrit were the "Buddhist world" and“hinduismThe communication language of "Jie" senior monks.
Because there are few oral speakers, Sanskrit writing and publishing are mainly religious and academic, and many Sanskrit can be found in bookstoresReligious Text Sudharma is the only daily newspaper in Sanskrit.
The results of the 1961 Indian census are in SanskritSecond language194433.
In 1991, the Indian census found that the population of Sanskrit as its mother tongue was 49736.
However, according to the survey in 2001, there are only 14000 people who think that their mother tongue is Sanskrit, which is the lowest among the 22 scheduled languages. The number of mother tongue users who are the second to last is more than one million.[3]
In contrast, the survey data of 1991 has been a special peak.
In 2011, the first World Samskrit Book Fair (स स ् क ृ त स ् य व र ा ट - र ू प म), the World Sanskrit Book Fair, was held inBangaloreIt proves that Sanskrit is still widely recognized in IndiaClassic language。
It is said that "308 new Samskrit titles" were released at the book fair, and 128 publishing units and more than 200 schools participated in the fair, which should be said to be an unprecedented success.[4]
Generally speaking, Sanskrit is the first of the four classical languages in India (in 2004, the Indian government announced that the language that meets certain conditions can be identified as "classical language", which was determined in 2004TamilIt is a classic language. Sanskrit was determined as a classic language in 2005, and it was determined in 2008TeluguAnd Etna German as the classical language), still has a pivotal position in India, its position is equivalent to that of Latin in Italy.
2、 Ximing Temple in Tang DynastyDaoshiThe mage (? – 683)《Fayuan Zhulin》There is such a record in the book: "There were three people who were the masters of the book making in the past. The book is long named FanRight row；The next is Khartoum, whose bookLeft row；The few who are Cang Jie, their books go down. "(Dazheng Zang, Volume 53, Page 351, middle and bottom)
Sanskrit Letter
Announce
edit
MostRepresentativenessOfSanskrit LetterThere are three kinds,Epiphyllum body、LanzatiAnd the most popular and well-knownDevanagariThe Tianchengti alphabet is called Sanskrit alphabet by the people of the contemporary world because it has a long history of spelling Sanskrit and its scope of use continues to expand in India today.Tianchengti letter is obtainedIndian BuddhismThe standard letter for writing Sanskrit is internationally recognized.
According to literature records, the Sanskrit alphabet was created by the god of the universe, "Great Brahman".Brahma, commonly known in China“Four sided buddha”, or "Great Brahma King".Sanskrit letters are words used by the gods in the sky.Each letter in the Sanskrit letter represents a source of strength. When Indian people practice "yoga", they often meditate on the Sanskrit letter. Chinese Sanskrit experts“Qian Wenzhong”I copied the "Heart Sutra" in Sanskrit.
The pronunciation of Buddhist "mantra" is required to be correct. Because the Sanskrit word spelling and pronunciation are absolutely regular, the mantra spelled with Sanskrit letters can not only say and write, but also maintain the pure Sanskrit pronunciation of the mantra, so it is the best choice for people who read the mantra with Sanskrit letters,BrahmaThe established writing format is from left to right, horizontal writing, no space left between words, and continuous spelling of a sentence from beginning to end.So in ancient times, when writing Sanskrit and copying India's sacred Veda and other documents, there was no space between words. Until modern times, there was no space between orthodox "Sanskrit" and "Hindi" words. Since the modern Western writing format was introduced into India, India began to imitate the Western format, and words were separated by spaces.
orthographic rule
Announce
edit
Sanskrit Great Compassion Mantra
Take the most popular Tiancheng style as an example
Since the 12th century, Sanskrit has been usedDevanagariLetters, eachConsonant letterAll contain fixedShort vowelWhen spelling a, consonant and other vowels, put the vowel symbols in front of, behind, above or below the letter.
Use independent when vowels appear in front of wordsvowel。Means pure consonantnasal consonantIt is indicated by symbols.
There is a horizontal line at the top of each Sanskrit letter, which connects the letters together when spelling.
Sanskrit anagram
Announce
edit
Consonant string letters (Sanskrit combination words) If there are more than two consecutive pure consonants in Sanskrit, use half of the consonant letters orConsonant letterSome of them are closely combined to form consonant string letters. The number of consonants in the consonant string letters is from two to five. The consonant string letters can generally identify the included consonants, but some consonant string letters are difficult to identify, and must be memorized. There are more than 1000 consonant string letters in Sanskrit, and consonant string letters are the main difficulty in learning Sanskrit spelling.
