Zhang Zhidong (from September 2, 1837 to October 4, 1909), known as Xiaoda, Xiangtao and Xiangyan, in his later years, called himself an old man with ice.ZhiliNanpi(Now it belongs to Nanpi County, Cangzhou City, Hebei Province)[55]，Born in GuizhouGuiyangLiudong Bridge。[52-53]He once served as governor and was called "Shuai", so people at that time called him "Zhang Xiangshuai"Zeng Guofan、Li Hongzhang、Zuo ZongtangSyndication“Four famous officials of Zhongxing in the late Qing Dynasty”。China's important officials in the late Qing DynastyWesternization FactionRepresentative figures.[48]
In 1850, Zhang Zhidong returned to his native place to participate in the provincial examination and was elected as a candidate.In 1863, Zhongtanhua was awarded a bachelor's degree as a lecturer in the Imperial Academy.In 1881, he served as the governor of Shanxi Province and began to prepare for the Westernization Movement, setting up the Guangdong Water and Land Teacher School, Gun Factory, Mining Bureau and Guangya Academy.In 1884, Zhang Zhidong promoted the governor general of Guangdong and Guangxi, and used Feng Zicai to fight against the French army.In 1889, he was transferred to the position of Governor of Huguang, set up Hanyang Iron Factory and Hubei Gun Factory, and set up four bureaus of weaving, spinning, silk reeling and hemp making.In 1894, acting as the governor of Liangjiang, he opposed the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki, formed a self strengthening army in Jiangnan and strengthened national defense.In 1907, he was also the minister of military aircraft. In November of the next year, he served as an important minister to the crown prince of Jin.In 1909, he died.[48]
Zhang Zhidong was a man of the moment on the historical stage of the late Qing Dynasty.[49]He advocated learning and absorbing western culture and put forward the idea of "Chinese style and Western style".Under the guidance of this thought, the idea of transcending the traditional industrial structure is proposed.Later, the vision of Western learning was shifted from the level of implements to the level of political system, and the change of this concept made it the protagonist of the New Deal at the end of the Qing Dynasty.Zhang Zhidong's ideas of "Chinese style and Western style" play a positive role in promoting learning from the West.[50]He also advocated the establishment of the Beijing Normal University, emphasizing normal education, and later presided over the establishment of a new school system with Zhang Baixi, which was called "Guimao school system" at that time.It is the first school system officially promulgated in the history of Chinese education and widely implemented in China, laying the cornerstone of China's modern school system.His book is Guangyatang Collection《Youxuan Language》Wait for a book《Complete Works of Zhang Wenxiang》。[51]
In September of the 17th year of Daoguang (1837), Zhang Zhidong was born in GuiyangLiudong Bridge[52-53]The official residence ofZhang YingHis fourth son, from ZhiliNanpi。Since the birthplace is located at the side of Kongming Cave of Liudong Bridge (today's Boai Road in Guiyang City), it is called "Zhidong" and its nickname is "Guanbao".[54]Zhang Zhidong was gifted with wisdom in his childhood.Zhang Zhidong joined the family school at the age of five. He studied hard since he was young, was quick in thinking, and was strictConfucianismEducation.He learned from several teachers, including Ding XuxianHan ChaoThe two teachers had a great influence on him.Ding Chanxian was a scholar in the 18th year of Daoguang (1838), and served as an attendant in the Imperial Academy.Han Chao tired the official toGuizhou Governor。Completed before 13Confucian classicsetc.Confucian Classics, part-time studyhistoriography, primary school (philology), literature and economics, and self-study《Sun Tzu's Art of War》《Six Taos》And many other famous military worksScholarly researchAt the age of 12, he published a collection of poems and essays entitled "Twelve Years of Grass in Tianxiang Pavilion".Young Zhang Zhidong has the habit of reading at night and meditating. "Taste the bonlight and meditate. Every night, he will get the solution.".He recalled that "when I was young, I used to sit and study at night." This habit of working at night was once referred to as "living without discipline", which affected meeting with colleagues.
Zhang Zhidong
In the thirtieth year of Daoguang's reign (1850), Zhang Zhidong, under the age of 14, returned to his native Nanpi County and won the first prizescholar, enterCounty school。Two years later, he won the first place in the Shuntianfu Rural Examination and was qualified to be a successful candidate in the conference.With Zhang Zhidong's educational ability at that time, he should be able tomake smooth reading, earlyhave passed the examination, but he didn't win the prize until he was 27 years old.In the past 11 years, he spent the first few years helping his father with military affairs and dealing with GuizhouMiao People Uprising, as well as getting married and having children, and keeping the rules for his father's funeral, he naturally has no time to take the exam.At the age of 23, he will take the exam. Because his brother Zhang Zhiwan is the same examiner, he will avoid the exam as usual.Ying Enke in the second yearTrials, for the same reason, they did not pass the exam.
In the second year of Tongzhi (1863), Zhang Zhidong participatedTrials、Palace examination, finally achieved his wish. He won the first place in the middle and the third place. He entered the Imperial Academy and was awarded the seventh rank of editor. He officially entered the official career and became a member of the bureaucratic class.
In the fifth year of Tongzhi (1866), the second grade of the college entrance examination.Later, he served as the deputy examiner of Zhejiang Provincial Examination, Hubei Xuezheng, Sichuan Provincial Examination, and Sichuan Xuezheng.When Zhang Zhidong was in charge of Hubei's academic and political affairs, he rectified the style of study, established the Jingxin Academy, promoted and rewarded people with genuine talent and practical learning, which won great popularity.When he was a student of politics in SichuanGovernor of SichuanWu TangEstablished together in ChengduZunjing Academy, invited famous Confucians to teach in different subjects, followed the rules of Ruan Yuan, Hangzhou Gujing Jingshe, and Guangzhou Xuehaitang, and wrote《Youxuan Language》《Bibliography Q&A》Two books to teach scholars what to read, how to learn and cultivate morality.
In the second year of Guangxu (1876), Zhang Zhidong was appointed as the president of Wenyuan Pavilion.In the fifth year of Guangxu (1879), Zhang Zhidong made upImperial CollegeEnterprise, supplementary awardZhanshi MansionZuo ChunfangLeft middle tolerance, turnDivision Economic Bureauofficial title given to the crown prince's herald。In the same year, the Qing governmentRussiaEncroachmentXinjiangIli , sent Zuo Du as the Imperial HistorianPerfect appearance and respectGo to Russia to negotiate the return of Ili.Chonghou, fatuous and ignorant, signed a contract with Russia to humiliate the country《Treaty of Rivagia》。This treaty nominally took back Ili, but the western and southern borders were slaughtered by Russia, and Ili was in danger of being surrounded by Russia.When the news came, public opinion was in uproar.In the following year (1880), Zhang Zhidong published the book "Understanding the Rights and Interests of the Russian Treaty" and "Detailed Planning and Planning"[38], analyzed that there are ten impermissibility of the Russian treaty, insisted on changing this argument, and it is appropriate to build military equipment, postpone the treaty, and request to treat serious crimes.After folding upCi'an、Empress Dowager Ci XiSummoned and authorized to go at any timePremier's YamenFor consultation.He is withZhang Peilun、Chen BaochenWe jointly drafted 19 memorials and put forward positive suggestions on raising troops and salaries, and preparing for defense and border defense.At that time, Zhang ZhidongBaoting、Zhang Peilun、Luteal aromaticsIt is called Hanlin Four Admonitions, and its number isPuritanism。They supportMinister of Military Aircraft、BachelorLi HongzaoAs a leader, Zhang Zhidong is actually the leader of the Qing School.In the Sino Russian negotiation, Zhang Zhidong's political reputation has been improved andEmpress Dowager Ci XiAppreciation of.[2]Imperial Academy in the sixth year of Guangxu (1880)royal tutor, moved to ZuoChunFangZuo Shuzi、Daily speaking, daily living, registration officer。The next yearCabinet Bachelor。Another termShanxi Governor。
Zhang Zhidong assumed the post ofShanxi Governor。At that time,ShanxiThe administration of officials is corrupt, and the people live in hardship,opiumThe poisoning is serious.Zhang Zhidong wrote to a friend: "Shanxi's officialdom is extremely chaotic, and its knowledge is extremely poor. There is a shortage of talented people, such as writers and military officers. There are many civil and military emergencies in official affairs. It is not a clean place to do nothing." "Shanxi's troubles are not caused by disasters, but in smoke. There are ten people in four villages, six people in cities, and almost ten people in three types of official servicemen. Everyone is barren, and every family is Yanqi.Jinyang is a gloomy and downtrodden scene, which is like a ghost country. How can you keep up your spirits and make progress? If you follow this, you will be unable to survive.[3]”Zhang Zhidong paid attention to the rectification of the administration of officials. Once he took office, he diligently examined the officials' affiliations, braced himself for reform, and impeached those who were greedy and indulged in harming the peoplecounty magistrateReward good officials, prohibit opium, recruit talents, organize and train troops, and check warehouses.The railway transportation in Shanxi was sold to Fengtian, Shanghai and other places, and the land transportation cost was very highTianjinTo go to sea, reduce shipping costs, and prepare a smelting bureau in the place of origin.He foundedLingde Hall, also imitating Ruan YuanExegetical exegesisLearn the rules of Haitang and hireWang XuanAs the keynote speaker,Yang ShenxiuIt is an Xiangyang University and also a supervisor.Yang Shenxiu later becameSix Gentlemen in 1898one of.
Statue of Zhang Zhidong in Yuexiu Nanyue Sage Park[35]
British missionariesTimothy Richard He preached in Shanxi, published pamphlets such as "Saving the Time", and organized instruments, lathesSewing machine, bicycle exhibition and operation performance.Zhang Zhidong met with Li Timothy and read his book. Influenced by his book, he planned to establish the Westernization Bureau, which was not realized.
In the ninth year of Guangxu's reign (1883), the Sino French War broke out, and Zhang Zhidong advocated resistance.In the tenth year of Guangxu (1884), FranceVietnam?Rampant, urgent border areas.Zhang Zhidong suggested that we should fight and defend. Please strictly supervise the war between Yunnan and Guangxi, and urgently repair the defense between Tianjin and Guangzhou.In April, the Qing court summoned Zhang Zhidong and granted him the right to enter Beijing.Zhang Zhidong had many plans for Chen's resistance to the law.[2]On April 28, the Qing court ordered Zhang Zhidong to take overZhang Shusheng, actingGovernor of Guangdong and Guangxi[44], which was granted on the third day of July.[45]
Zhang Zhidong ArrivesGuangzhouLater, they strengthened defense and ordered coastal areasGovernor, close defense.In June, the French invaders occupied ChinaTaiwanKeelungZhang Zhidong asked the Chief of the Ministry of OfficialsTang JingsongGo to the meetingLiu Yongfu, strike together with the French army.He thought: "The only way to help Taiwan is to be more urgent. Please fight for more to improve the overall situation. Also, it is the best policy to lead the enemy to fight more, and try to use Liu to help.".[4]”The Qing court adopted Zhang Zhidong's suggestion and added Liu YongfuCommander in chiefregistered.Liu YongfuBlack Flag ArmyBrave and good at fighting, he has repeatedly created the French army.But becauseGuangxi Chief ExecutiveXu Yanxu、 Yunnan Chief ExecutiveTang JiongThe army led by him failed to cooperate effectively in the War of Resistance against France and was defeated. The Tang army fled, making the Black Flag Army outnumbered and defeated.Tang and Xu were removed from their posts for investigation and prosecution. Zhang Zhidong was also demoted to one rank and remained in office at the beginning of the following year (1885) because of his improper recommendation to Xu Yanxu[39]。
In the first month of the 11th year of Guangxu's reign (1885), the French army invaded and occupied an important border town between China and VietnamZhennan Pass(TodayFriendship Gate）The situation is critical.Zhang Zhidong asked for the transfer of predecessorGuangxi GovernorFeng Zicai、CommanderWang XiaoqiAnd other aid from Guangxi, and stationed in Zhennanguan.70 year old generalFeng ZicaiLed the army, fought to the death, defeated the French army, and changed the whole war situation.FranceRu FeiliThe cabinet collapsed as a result.However, the Qing government was determined to take advantage of the victory and seek peace, and ordered all the troops on the front line to stop fighting and withdraw.When hearing the news, the frontline officers and men were "all wrung and indignant".Zhang Zhidong's troops were withdrawn after a series of telegramsLi HongzhangTo preach and reprimand.
In the 13th year of Guangxu (1887), Zhang Zhidong founded in GuangzhouGuangya Book CompanyandGuangya Academy。Original in GuangdongDuanxi Academy, onZhaoqing, he hiredLiang DingfenHe presided over Duanxi Academy, and later Liang Dingfen led his teachers and students to Guangya Academy.Zhang Zhidong RecruitsZhu YixinLecture at Guangya Academy.At that time, Liang Dingfen was convicted of impeaching Li Hongzhang and Zhu Yixin for impeaching the eunuchLi LianyingAnd demoted.Zhang Zhidong resisted the criticism and continued to hire them.
In the 15th year of Guangxu's reign (1889), Zhang Zhidong proposed to build a Luhan railwayLugou BridgeTo Hankou, through the north and south.In his opinion, the benefits of railway are the most important, which is to provide access to land and goods and improve people's livelihood, followed by conscription and pay.He pointed out that Luhan Railway is "the hub of trunk roads, the foundation of branch roads, and the best of China's great interests"[5]。The imperial court will give the permission, and the northern section is planned to beZhili GovernorChaired by, the south section isGovernor of HuguangPresided by, built in sections from north to south.Therefore, the Qing court appointed Zhang Zhidong as governor of Huguang.August, deploymentGovernor of HuguangAnd acted as governor of Liangjiang for many times.In this historical process, under the specific planning and personal guidance of Zhang Zhidong himself, Hubei has successively establishedSelf improvement school(TodayWuHan UniversityPredecessor)Military Academy, Agricultural Affairs School (todayHuazhong Agricultural UniversityPredecessor).Wuhan University of Science and TechnologyThe predecessor of -Hubei Technology SchoolIt was also born in this historical period under the planning and guidance of Zhang Zhidong.Not only in Hubei, Zhang Zhidong was founded in Nanjing when he was governor of LiangjiangSanjiang Normal School(TodayNanjing UniversityPredecessor).[6]In the winter of the same year, Zhang Zhidong arrived in Hubei.First, preparationHanyang Iron Plant。Zhang Zhidong also made some jokes when he ran an enterprise.He telegraphed to the British MinisterXue FuchengWhen purchasing the machine and furnace of the steel mill, the owner of the British Tessait factory replied, "If you want to run a steel mill, you must first send all the iron, stone, coal and coke to the factory for testing, and then know what the quality of coal and iron is, what kind of steel can be made, that is, what kind of furnace, the difference is one millionth of a mile. You can't take the liberty to do anything."Zhang Zhidong said: "China is so big that there is nothing. Why should we first look for coal and iron and then buy machines and furnaces? But we can only buy and operate according to what is used in Britain." The British factory owner had to obey his orders.As a result, the machine and furnace are located in Hanyang, the iron is Daye, and the coal is Maanshan.The coal and ash in Ma'anshan are equally important, so coking is not allowed, so we have toGermanyPurchase thousands of tons of coke.From the 16th to the 22nd year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1890-1896), it cost 5.6 million taels and has not yet been refined into steel.Later, the coal from Pingxiang, Jiangxi, was used to make the steel which was too brittle and easy to crack.Only then did Zhang Zhidong know that the turbine and furnace he bought were in acidic configuration and could not be dephosphorized. The steel contained too much phosphorus and was prone to embrittlement.So we borrowed another 3 million yuan from Japan and changed the original machine furnace to the machine furnace with alkaline configuration to produce high-quality Martin steel.
Hanyang Iron Plant
Hanyang Iron Works is an iron and steel complex,Guangxu reign periodIt was completed in 1893, including 10 steel mills, iron mills, iron foundries, 2 furnaces, 3000 workers and 1000 coal miners.It was the first large-scale capitalist machine in modern Chinasteel industryIn addition, it is also the first largest steel plant in Asia, and the steel plant construction in Japan is several years later than that.
Zhang Zhidong has also done itHubei textile layout。In the 18th year of Guangxu's reign (1892), he drove in Wuchang, with 30000 spindles, 1000 looms and 2000 workers.The weaving bureau is profitable.However, Zhang Zhidong used the profits of the weaving bureau to make up for the losses of the iron and gun factories, so that the weaving layout has always beenUsuryUnder the pressure of, there is no way to develop.Zhang Zhidong saw a wide market for cotton yarn and decided to open two mills.He called the British MinisterXue FuchengOrder machines from British merchants.In the 23rd year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1897), the North Factory was built, with more than 50000 spindles. It was Hubei Spinning Bureau.The South Factory has not been built yet, and the machines are parked at the Shanghai dock in spite of the wind and rain. LaterZhang JianHe went to set up Nantong Dasheng Yarn Factory.Hubei Spinning Bureau, Weaving Bureau, Silk Reeling Bureau and Hemp Making Bureau were sublet to Yingchang Company organized by Guangdong capitalists in the 28th year of Guangxu's reign (1902).
Zhang Zhidong arrived in Hubei, where he was dispatched in the 20th year of Guangxu's reign (1894)Governor of Liangjiang, the term of office is more than one year.He attached great importance to the education in Hubei and Jiangsu, and established and rectified many academies and schools.In Hubei, there are Lianghu Academy, Jingxin Academy and Agricultural Affairs School (the predecessor of Huazhong Agricultural University)[34], Technology School, Military Self improvement School, Business School, etc;In Nanjing, there are Chucai School, Railway School, Army SchoolNaval AcademyEtc.He sent overseas students to study in Japan.In terms of learning subjects in schools and academies, he made some reforms in response to social needs and added some new subjects.He also pays attention to training the armyGovernor of LiangjiangDuring his term of office, he had trained the Jiangnan Self improvement Army with 10000 officers in Xuzhou. All officers were German and trained in Western France.In the 22nd year of Guangxu's reign (1896), he returned to the post of governor of Huguang and handed over the self strengthening army to the governor of LiangjiangLiu Kunyi。[2]
Sino Japanese War
Zhang Zhidong
On August 1, the 20th year of Guangxu's reign (1894), after the Sino Japanese War of 1894 broke out, Zhang Zhidong once asked to send a cavalry team "to Tianjin for dispatch", and wanted to "help foreign countries".In view of the fact that "the Japanese are getting stronger and stronger, and will go deeper", he suggested that "we should be careful to consolidate Jin Gu and Sheng Jing".On October 26, he called Li Hongzhang and put forward three propositions, namely, "purchase of warships, borrowing foreign funds, and strengthening aid".At the end of October, after the Japanese troops crossed the Yalu River, Liaoshen was in danger. Zhang Zhidong again raised five issues, namely, "buying fast boats, buying arms, borrowing foreign funds, getting strong aid, and offering rewards and punishments".On November 2, the governor of Liangjiang was transferred.On November 7, he pointed out in a telegram to Li Hongzhang that "no matter whether there is war or peace, there must be a ship".In late November, when the Japanese army besieged Lushun, Zhang Zhidong calledLi Hongzhang、Li BinghengThe request for first aid in Lushun is invalid.
At the beginning of the 21st year of Guangxu's reign (1895), when the Japanese army invaded the Shandong Peninsula, Zhang Zhidong sent an urgent telegram to Li Bingheng, the governor of Shandong Province, suggesting that Li "instruct local officials to recruit more civilians, quickly open more trenches at night, and bury more gunpowder and mines on the main roads" to prevent the Japanese army from invading.He also said that he planned to allocate guns and ammunition to support the Shandong garrison.After Ding Ruchang committed suicide and died in the country, he once suggested thatLiu YongfuShandong was transferred to defend Yantai against Japan.When Zhang Zhidong learned that the Qing court had said that the cutting off of the sea was in the sun, he called the court on February 28, making clear his interests and strongly opposing the cutting off of the sea.He also proposed two "expedient and emergency measures" to protect Taiwan: first, borrow huge sums from Britain, "use Taiwan as security", and Britain will defend Taiwan with warships;2、 In addition to borrowing huge amounts of money, "Xu Ying has been mining in Taiwan for one or two decades", which is of great benefit to Britain and will be willing to protect Taiwan.On March 29, Zhang Zhidong called Tang Jingsong to encourage the imperial government;On the one hand, it is suggested that Liu Yongfu, the general of the Hundred Battles, be employed, and at the same time, call Liu Yongfu to suggest that he "tolerate the small and assume the big, work together with one heart, and build miracles".
《Treaty of Shimonoseki》After signing the agreement, Zhang Zhidong told the Qing court on April 26 that the only way to annul the agreement was to ask for help to strengthen the country.On May 20, the Qing court ordered Tang Jingsong to "open the vacancy at once and come to Beijing to see his majesty. All the civil and military personnel of Taiwan Province and Taiwan Province have successively crossed the border".Zhang Zhidong believed that "at this time, it is the strategy of Taiwan. Only by relying on the Taiwanese people to fight and defend, we can dispatch useless people as early as possible, so as to avoid wasting wages. We can ban money to cross the border and confiscate the army".On the 24th, Zhang Zhidong learned from Tang Jingsong's call that "Taiwan people will become a democratic country in the future". On the 27th, Zhang Zhidong said that Taiwan "has changed itself into a democratic country, and then raised weapons and other things, and has never been convenient to help to avoid complications".On June 3, the Japanese army fellKeelung Port。On the 5th, Zhang Zhidong still calledTang JingsongI hope he inspires people to stick toTaipei HouseHe also encouraged Tang to "lead a large number of close soldiers, get paid and armed, choose to be stationed conveniently, or fight, or attack, or defend, and respond to the situation with a camera, and make sure to take advantage of the situation." However, Tang Jingsong failed to live up to the expectations of the Taiwanese people, and returned to Xiamen by boat on the 7th.In the end, only Liu Yongfu led the army and the people in Taiwan to resist the Japanese invasion army.However, Zhang Zhidong was afraid to give money to Zhang Zhidong, although he had money to pay. On October 19,Liu YongfuAfter defeat, they returned to Xiamen.
Participation in political reform
Sino-Japanese Jiawu WarDuring this period, Zhang Zhidong dispatched the governor of Liangjiang. Although he also raised salaries and weapons, his army did not play a practical role.The imperial court ordered four warships, and he sentLi HongzhangThe telegram said: "It was intended to transfer four Nanyang warships. It was found that these four warships were wooden shells, and their pipes and belts were not strong. The gunners, Shui Yong, were not refined and useless, but only for a single attack, they were all rotted. Even deliberately sinking and stranding were unpredictable." After the failure of the Sino Japanese War of 1894-1895, Zhang Zhidong wrote "Calls for repair and reserve before breaking", hoping that the court would sum up the lessons of failure and reform and seek governance.As he talked about the country's resilience with enthusiasm, advocated resisting aggression and establishing westernization enterprises, the leader of the reformistsKang YouweiOn《Written on the bus》Zhang Zhidong, who is called by the Chinese, "has the hope of the world"Frontier sealed officialsWith great hope and respect.Kang Youwei OrganizationStrong societyZhang Zhidong expressed his support and sympathy and donated 5000 liang to cover the membership fee.emperor teacherWeng-tung-ho He also joined the Qiang Society, which was known as "Changshu (Weng Tonghe) inside and Nanpi (Zhang Zhidong) outside". Weng and Zhang became the two pillars of the Qiang Society.
In November of the 21st year of Guangxu (1895),Kang YouweiHe went south to Nanjing to pay a visit to Zhang Zhidong and was warmly welcomed and received by Zhang Zhidong.Kang Youwei is going to set up a strong society in Shanghai, promote Zhang Zhidong as the president, and draft the Preface of Shanghai Strong Society on behalf of Zhang Zhidong.Zhang Zhidong agreed at that time.Later, when Shanghai Qiang Society was founded, he was asked to make a list. Zhang replied by telephone: "The group gathered together. Don't bother me. Please remove the name and send the donation.[7]”As a sponsor outside the conference, he donated 500 taels and allocated 1000 taels of public funds.Among the members of Shanghai Qiang SocietyWang Kangnian, Feng YongLuteal aromatics、Tu Renshou、Huang Shaoji, and Zhang Zhidong.But then he sawEmpress Dowager Ci XiTook action to compelEmperor GuangxuThe strong society and《Chinese and foreign chronicles》He stopped donating money on the pretext that Kang Youwei talked about the modern text of Confucian classics and claimed that Confucius' theory of system reform was incompatible with his usual academic theme.Guangxu reign periodTwenty two to twenty three years (1896-1897),reformersStarted publication in Shanghai《Current affairs》，Liang QichaoChief writer, Wang Kangnian as the manager.In the name of the Governor, Zhang Zhidong asked all counties in Hubei Province to buy and read the Current Affairs Newspaper, donate 1000 yuan and give the newspaper economic support.Later, the Current Affairs Newspaper published an article about China's fight for civil rights, which made Zhang Zhidong very unhappy.He inspired Tu Renshou to write the Book of Distinguishing the Korean People, criticizingProlific translator of Western works into classical ChineseOf《To open up Korea》An article was published in the Current Affairs.
Zhang Zhidong in his later years
Chen BaozhenAfter assuming the post of governor of Hunan, Hunan startedReform movement。His new policies in Hunan, including running factories and reforming education, were approved by Zhang Zhidong.Under the influence of Zhang Zhidong, Chen Baozhen also ordered students from academies in all counties and counties across the province to read the Current Affairs Daily.Hunan founded the Southern Society《Journal of Hunan》Hunan Daily, Zhang Zhidong used political power to promote Hunan Journal in Hubei counties.Since the tenth volume, the Journal of Hunan has published articles on Confucius' reform and advocacy of civil rights, which made Zhang Zhidong very dissatisfied.In the leap of March of the 24th year of Guangxu, Zhang Zhidong called Chen Baozhen to say that the "Hunan Journal" was paradoxical and ordered the bureau to stop issuing.He also warned Chen Baozhen that this matter "relates to the academic people's hearts and minds, spreads far and near, will be a disorder, and must be corrected".[8]For HunanReform movementApply pressure.
In March, Zhang Zhidong published《Persuasion》。Compilation of Imperial AcademyHuang ShaojiPresented in the form of "Persuading others to learn".The Emperor Guangxu issued an imperial edict, saying that the book "is fair and straightforward, which is of great benefit to the academic public. The Military Aircraft Department issued 40 copies of the book to each governor and one copy of the book, so that it can be widely published, strongly persuaded, and taught under the same nameRandom speech”。[9]The publication of "Persuading Learning" wasConservative schoolHis praise was severely refuted by the reformists.Die hardsSu YuPrepared by《Series of wing teachings》, and included several articles in "Persuading Scholars", and praised that "Xinjiang officials are outstanding in Jue Nan Pi, and several pieces of Persuading Scholars are the pillars of promoting the future.[10]”Zhang TaiyanThen he bluntly criticized the first part of the "Persuasion to Learn", which was "more effective in Zhongqing's room language",[11]Advocate feudal loyalty to the monarch.Liang Qichao, a reformist, commented on the book: "It is not enough to walk with the strength of the imperial court. It is not enough to spread all over the sea. In less than 30 years, it will be turned into ashes and become a wild horse of dust. Its dust is occasionally raised by the wind, and people who smell it will still pass by.[12]”During the Reform Movement of 1898, Zhang Zhidong had more connections with the reformists.He is also a very active person.Zhang Zhidong was recommended by Chen BaozhenYang RuiandLiu Guangdi。Yang Rui is Zhang Zhidong's disciple and staff. After arriving in Beijing, he kept close contact with Zhang Zhidong.Later, Yang Rui and Liu Guangdi took the title of SipinqingMilitary aircraft seal Beijing, participate in important politics.In the same month, Zhang Zhidong was transferred to Beijing because of HubeiShashiIn case of burning western-style houses, turn back halfway.August, onEmpress Dowager Ci XiOn the eve of the coup, Chen Baozhen once asked Emperor Guangxu to speed up Zhang Zhidong to enter Beijing to "sponsor the New Deal", but failed.Japanito hirobumi When I visited Beijing, I said to the General Administration: "The reform does not start from a grand perspective. With civil strife and foreign aggression looming, only Zhang Xiangshuai is the minister of affairs in China."[13]Soon, Empress Dowager Cixi launchedThe coup of 1898, killed“the Six Heroes”The Hundred Day Reform failed.Zhang Zhidong sends an urgent telegram to save his favorite student Yang Rui[2]。
In the 26th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1900), northern ChinaBoxersAnti imperialist patriotic movement.At the beginning, Zhang Zhidong advocated a resolute suppression.He successively suppressed HubeiTianmen County、Jingzhou MansionPeople in other places will burn churches and hospitals. They will also ask the provinces along the river to fight against "evil bandits", prohibit violent troops, comfort embassies, and call countries to apologize.In order to protect the vested interests of the Yangtze River basin, the British imperialists contacted with powerful governors such as Zhang Zhidong and Liu Kunyi and signed the Southeast Mutual Protection Charter.According to the terms, the Shanghai Concession is under the common protection of all countries, and "the business, civil and clerical industries of the Yangtze River, Suzhou and Hangzhou inland countries are under the common protection of all countriesNanyang MinisterLiu and the General Constitutions of Hunan and Hunan agreed to protect "[14]。Governor of Guangdong and GuangxiLi Hongzhang、Governor of Fujian and ZhejiangXu Yingkui、Shandong Governorhigh Qing officialThey all agreed and joined the ranks of "Southeast Mutual Insurance".
In July, Zhang Zhidong arrested and killed in WuhanIndependent armychiefTang CaichangMore than 20 people waited.Reform Movement of 1898After the defeat, Tang Caichang and others contacted the CPC and some officers and men of the Qing army to organize a self supporting army, which was ready to revolt in Anhui, Hubei and Hunan provinces and establishconstitutional monarchyThe "new independent country" of the Emperor Guangxu was asked to restore.They also want to persuade Zhang Zhidong through Japan to support him to establish a "Southeast independent country".Zhang Zhidong didn't immediately take a position when he learned the news.At this time, the UK was also active as a member of the Hong Kong CouncilHe QiEqual pullSun Yat-senAnd prepared to instigate Li Hongzhang's "independence" in South China.Li Hongzhang is also watching.Thus, this complicated political situation emerged.When the uprising of the independent army was imminent and the Empress Dowager Cixi had not lost control of the central government of the Qing Dynasty, Zhang Zhidong started to kill Tang Caichang and others.
After Zhang Zhidong exterminated the independent army, he found that he had joined ShanghaiZhang YuanThere are many famous gentry, scholars and overseas students in the Congress.So he drafted an article to exhort the Shanghai Congress and overseas students, which listed the crime of independent army as Kang's party, exhorted the gentry, scholars and students studying in Japan in the Congress to disintegrate the revolutionary team.The students studying in Japan were so angry that they publicly recommendedShen XiangyunI wrote a letter titled "Cave of Fuzhang" to refute it.In his letter, Shen Xiangyun explained that democracy in western capitalist countries is a universal axiom, which cannot be called Kang and Liang heresy;Revealing Zhang Zhidong, he said: "When the public decides this prison, it is said that the consul hates it, the priest hates it, and the foreign officials and westerners all hate it. The public thinks that the consul, the priest, the foreign officials and westerners are China? Is it the other country? Why is it puzzled.[15]”It is said that Zhang Zhidong was very embarrassed when he read the letter, so he ordered the students of Lianghu, Jingxin and Jianghansan Academy to write a refutation. It took a while to resist[2]。
Advocate a new deal
Zhang Zhidong
The Qing court is passing byEight-Nation AllianceAfter the war of aggression against Beijing, we had to "adapt politics". In March of the 27th year of Guangxu (1901), it was foundedSupervision and Administration Division, Hu Guang Governor Zhang Zhidong and Liangjiang GovernorLiu Kunyi"Remote participation".In May and June, Zhang Zhidong, together with Liu Kunyi, presented three memorials in a row: "The flexible political talents are the first to comply with the decree", "The compliance reform is proposed to rectify the 12 rules of China and France", and "The compliance reform is proposed to adopt the 11 rules of Western France".This is famous“Three Points of Jiang Chu's Reform”。The first part is about setting up schools, abolishing disciplines, and putting forward suggestions such as setting up civil and military schools, changing liberal arts, stopping martial arts, and rewarding study tours.The second part is to rectify China and France, and propose advocating thrift, breaking the norm, stopping donation, paying high salaries to officials, going to clerical offices, going to errands, compensating for prison, re-election law, etcEight BannersLivelihood, Fengyong, disarmament of garrison guards, disarmamentGreen camp, simple grammar, etc.In this memorial, he said:"The people's sentiment in recent days is not the same as that of thirty years ago. They envy the rich in foreign countries and despise the poor in Central China. They see the strength of foreign troops and weaken the cowardice of the officials and the army. They complain about the difficulties of Lijin because of the peace of Lehai Pass. They boast about the consolidation of the concessions and suffer the harassment of officials and Xus. So the people from foreign religions, hang up foreign flags, and the scholars become foreign nationals. From every other bedroom, they become lax, and the people become disorderly. The evil people gradually rise. When the evil saying takes advantage of it, the state base is very worried.[31]”This reflects the depth and poison of the imperialist invasion of China, as well as the extent and psychology of the Chinese people's hatred of political corruption in the Qing Dynasty.The third conclusion adopts Western France, and puts forward suggestions such as extensive travel, foreign exercises, military practice, agricultural administration, persuasion of technology, determination of mining law, road law, commercial law, negotiation of criminal law, use of silver dollars, stamp duty, postal service, official collection of foreign medicine, and translation of books from eastern and western countries.In this memorial, he said: "If the government is effective, the people will not be ill. If Kang Youwei is wrong, but with the purpose of spreading health educationOutlineIn fact, I am not familiar with the essence of Western politics and Western learning, so I draw up different ideas.[32]”He also made a special statement that the content and essence of Western France he adopted were totally different from those of Kang Youwei's reformists.
Seeing that the bourgeois revolutionaries were becoming more and more powerful, the Qing court claimed that in order to maintain their rule“Preliminary constitutionalism”。Dispatched in the 31st year of Guangxu (1905)Five Ministers Going AbroadExamine the constitutionalism of various countries.In the following year, the official system reform was announced and the outline of the Constitution was compiled.At the beginning, Zhang Zhidong was surprised to hear some rumors about the "preparatory constitutionalism". When the five ministers returned to ChinaShanghaiWhen asking for his opinions, he replied in an ambiguous manner, saying: "Constitutionalism is of great importance. If provinces are ordered to discuss in the future, they should exhaust their knowledge of governing Li and clarifying Chen. At this time, they really dare not participate in the final discussion."[16]He was more opposed to the reform of foreign official system. He believed that "if we do it, the world will immediately be in chaos". He also said: "It is about more than 200 years of laws and regulations, and governance in 21 provinces. How can we take a careful look at it? Why can't we wait for it? We must rush to make a final decision?"[17]
Central officials
In order to strengthen the imperial power and weaken the power of local officials, the Qing government, through the official system reform, took the most powerful local governorshigh Qing officialAnd Zhang Zhidong to Beijing.On June 18, the 33rd year of Guangxu (1907), Zhang Zhidong was awardedBachelor of Ti Ren Ge[46], was appointed on July 27Minister of Military Aircraft。[47]
In October of the 34th year of Guangxu (1908), Emperor Guangxu and Empress Dowager Cixi died one after another,Pu YiHe succeeded to the throne and changed the year title to Xuantong.Prince Chun Zaifengprince regentThe Manchu pro nobles took the opportunity to centralize power and repel Han officials.Yuan Shikai was a powerful Han official at that time. In addition, he betrayed Emperor Guangxu during the Reform Movement of 1898ZaifengSuch as the royal family.So Zaifeng and others murdered Yuan.Zhang Zhidong objected to this, saying that "the lack of national suspicions should not be less than killing ministers".
In the first month of the first year of Xuantong (1909), the Qing government sent Yuan Shikai back to Henan to recuperate from his illness under the name of "foot disease".In June, Zhang Zhidong was seriously ill.August 21 (October 4, 1909),[1]On the same dayBaimixie StreetThe residence (now No. 11 Courtyard, Baimixie Street, Shichahai Lake, Xicheng District, Beijing) died.On August 23 (October 6), the posthumous title of the Qing government was "Wenxiang".[18]
Political initiatives
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Reform education
Statue of Zhang Zhidong
Sino Japanese WarLater, Zhang Zhidong gradually formed a set of relatively systematic modern educational thoughts and realized the importance of establishing a new school system.After serving as the governor of Huguang, Zhang Zhidong set up large-scale new education in Hubei - industrial education, normal education and national education.These new educational activities made his idea of a powerful educational country play an important role in promoting the modernization of Chinese education.
First, Zhang Zhidong developed in Hubei in order to support the revitalization of industryIndustrial education。Among them, the more effective ones are the establishment of the Agricultural Affairs School and the Craft School, which have trained a number of talents needed for new agriculture and industry.Agriculture plays an important role in Zhang Zhidong's conception of economic modernization.In order to improve Hubei agriculture, Zhang decided to set up an agricultural affairs school to train talents in agronomy.The Agricultural Affairs School has become an effective school in Hubei's industrial education, and the graduates have also played a positive role in the promotion of Hubei's agricultural education.
Second, set up Hubei industry.He believed that Chinese scholars were limited by traditional concepts and disdained to learn "craft", while ordinary craftsmen had no cultural knowledge and lacked talents with scientific theoretical knowledge, so they could not find the reasons for the problems in production;The imported machines cannot be transformed according to the actual situation, which is an important reason for China's lack of talents and backward industry.Therefore, there must be two types of talents to develop new education——engineerAnd technicians.In the 28th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1902), Zhang changed the craft school to the original oneJianghan AcademyThe former site is intended to be an advanced school.Later, he was transferred to Cheng Song's office, so that the teaching of the craft school achieved certain results, and the students who were trained could manufacture various practical new machines.
Third, Zhang Zhidong attaches importance to the foundationNormal education。He realized that the development of education lies in popularizationnational educationThe foundation of education lies in popularizing primary schools.Popularization of primary schools requires a large number of qualified teachers, which is a prerequisite for the development of primary schools. It is found that teachers in primary and secondary schools in various countries are all drawn from normal schools, so normal schools are the place of education, which is of vital importance.In the 28th year of Guangxu's reign (1902), in addition to sending students from both academies to Japan to study as teachers, Zhang Zhidong founded Hubei Normal School in Wuchang to train primary and secondary school teachers.In the 29th year of Guangxu (1903), Zhang Zhidong, the governor of Liangjiang, requested the establishment ofSanjiang Normal School50 secondary school teachers from imperial examinations were selected to teach self-cultivation, history, geography, literature, mathematics and gymnastics.China and Japan can also learn from each other to solve the problem of teachers in schools.Under the advocacy of Zhang Zhidong, the administrative system of normal education in Hubei has made great progress, which has played a huge role in promoting modern education in Hubei, and also created a large number of talents for the development of Hubei.[2]
Railway construction
Zhang Zhidong, the supervisor of the railwayGovernor of HuguangDuring his tenure, he attached great importance to the construction of railways. He believed that "the railway is the first important end for self-improvement. If the railway is not successful, other ends will be more indifferent.".[19]”"Western countries are rich and powerful, especially rooted here.[20]”The Luhan Railway, which he proposed and supervised, was built in the 24th year of Guangxu's reign and completed in March of the 31st year of Guangxu's reign. It was named Beijing Han Railway.In June of the 31st year of Guangxu's reign (1905), Zhang Zhidong also ordered to supervise the construction of the Guangdong Han Railway.The right to build the Guangdong Han Railway was controlled by the United States as early as 1898.In the 24th year of Guangxu's reign (1898), the United States Hexing Company signed the Loan Contract for the Yuehan Railway with the Qing government, controlling the right to build the Yuehan Railway.In the 26th year of Guangxu's reign (1900), a renewal contract was signed, stipulating that the loan was 40 million dollars, which was built by Hexing Company within five years and could not be transferred to other countries.But three years later, by the 29th year of Guangxu's reign, the railway had not yet started construction.In the 30th year of Guangxu's reign, Hexing sold two-thirds of its shares to the Belgian Wanguo Oriental Company.When people in Hunan, Hubei and Guangdong learned this news, they were very angry and asked to cancel the original contract and take back the right of way.At this time, Zhang Zhidong gave orders to supervise the Guangdong Han Railway. After more than a year's negotiation with the American company, he redeemed the right of way at a high price of 6.75 million liang in July of the 31st year of Guangxu (1905).Later, Zhang Zhidong, citing the difficulty in raising high sharesXuantongIn April of the first year (1909), Hu Guang Railway Loan Contract was signed with Germany, Britain and France, borrowing 5.5 million pounds to build the Guangdong Han Railway.This provoked a larger wave of resistance.[2]
During the 17 years of supervising Hubei, Zhang Zhidong strongly advocated the opening of new schools, the reform of military and political affairs, and the revitalization of industry. As a result, Hubei became the center of China's new westernization policy in the later period with its talent and wealth.[2]
Study law
Zhang Zhidong asWesternization FactionHe advocated learning western law and put forward the idea of "learning from the West is the body and learning from the West is the use".He worked with Liu Kunyi on the specific measures of the adoption of the eleven points of western law.However, the study and adoption of Western France must be based on the premise that "middle school is the body", and the fundamental principles of China and France cannot be moved;The basic principles of Western learning cannot be learned.As early asRevision of Laws in the Late Qing DynastyBefore the official start, Zhang Zhidong advocated that "those who can use Western learning to make up for our shortcomings, and those who can use Western politics to make up for our shortcomings". He believed that doing so was "beneficial without harm".In May of the 27th year of Guangxu, he andGovernor of LiangjiangLiu Kunyi jointly wrote three pieces of "Jiang Chu Hui Zuo Bian Zhe", put forward the suggestions of "compensating the prison", "building the hearts of the people", and improving the legal system, and recommended them together with Yuan ShikaiShen Jiaben、Qing government's representative in the U.S.He is the minister of law.[2]
In 1901 (the 27th year of Guangxu's reign), Zhang Zhidong referred to Western law in his nine opinions on the reform of criminal law in the Twelve Articles on Rectifying China and France, and proposed specific improvement methods such as "valuing public certificates", "changing fines", "teaching techniques", and improving prisons.Zhang Zhidong also attached great importance to the "public law" in Western law, which is a subject often encountered in dealing with western countries in the process of westernization.In this regard, he put forward two suggestions: first, consult Chinese and foreign laws and formulate "trade laws" as the legal basis for handling cases of foreigners in China;Second, we should cultivate talents who are familiar with Chinese and foreign laws to meet this need.Later, Zhang Zhidong also advocated that lawyers from all countries should be employed to draw on the mining laws, railway laws, commercial laws and criminal laws of all countries, and compile concise mining laws, road laws, commercial laws and negotiation criminal laws for China.[2]
Ideology
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Educational ideology
Zhang Zhidong's thought and practice of promoting education and cultivating talents occupy a very important position in the history of modern education in China.[2]Zhang Zhidong advocatesPractical"Practical learning" emphasizes that the main content of learning is to read through the history and classics.The specific measures are mainly to reform traditional educational institutions, represented by Jingxin Academy in Hubei and Zunjing Academy in Sichuan.The traditional educational institutions in the Qing Dynasty were mainly Xueyu and Academies. After the reign of Emperor Qianlong and Emperor Jiaqing, due to insufficient funds and dereliction of duty by instructors, many local Xueyu gradually ceased to exist. Academies became the main educational institutions.However, most of these academies are just examinations, not lectures, and are out of touch with practical knowledge.To this end, Zhang Zhidong began to attach importance to guiding the Academy to emphasize practical learningWenchang PavilionSet up Jingxin Academy, and select the best ones. Most of them study classics, historical theories, poems, and miscellaneous works, which flaunt practical learning and focus on practical application.In the ninth year of Tongzhi (1870), the term of office for studying politics had expired. When he returned to Beijing after leaving office, he was praised by Hubei scholars. Zhang Zhidong wrote a poem with emotion: "People's words are official music, but they don't know it is official hardship. I am 34 years old, and my white hair can be counted." In the thirteenth year of Tongzhi (1873), Zhang Zhidong was also appointed as the deputy chief examiner of the Sichuan provincial examination, and in September, he was appointed as the Sichuan school politics.After entering Sichuan, he found that the phenomenon of cheating in examinations in Sichuan was serious, so he took measures to eliminate the accumulated cheating in examinations and rectify the ethos of intellectuals.He believed that "if you want to govern the people of Sichuan, you must first govern the people of Sichuan".[2]
Attach importance to Western learning
Portrait of Zhang Zhidong[36]
Continue to advocate reformtraditional educationAt the same time, Zhang Zhidong began to realize the importance of "Western learning", and began to pilot a new school based on "Western learning". The reform of the academy was represented by the Lianghu Academy, and the new school was represented by the craft school and the self-improvement school.
In the 16th year of Guangxu (1890), Zhang Zhidong founded the Lianghu Academy at the former site of Dusihu Jingxin Academy.The Academy has a quota of 240 students, 100 students in Hunan and Hubei respectively, and 40 students with specific business nationality. It has set up "four courses of Confucian classics, history, Neo Confucianism, and literature", with the purpose of cultivating talents who "become famous officials and become famous Confucians".In 1896, Zhang reformed the Lianghu Academy. Following the example of the Western Academy, he gave lectures every day to check the students' learning. The curriculum was changed to four courses, namely, classics, history, geography and current affairs. At the same time, he set up a dean to be responsible for explaining the economy.Zhang Zhidong also attaches great importance to the management and ideological control of students' learning.In 1902, the Lianghu Academy was changed into the Lianghu Higher School, divided into eight disciplines, and became a comprehensive higher school including three disciplines of literature, science and law.The number of students was reduced from 240 to 120. The first outstanding students from Lianghu, Jingxin and Jianghansan academies were promoted to study in the halls. Those who entered the school must first make up for one year in general subjects, three years in special subjects, and then study abroad for one year. A total of five years of graduation.The Lianghu Academy has evolved from a traditional academy into a new college, and finally became a new school with the increase of Western learning courses.When Zhang Zhidong changed the Lianghu Academy and Jingxin Academy into schools in 1898, he proposed that "the main purpose of the two academies' separate learning is to take China (learning) as the body and Western learning as the use, which avoids the ridicule of pedantry and uselessness, and also avoids the disadvantage of deviating from the classics".But what students are really interested in is the "Western Studies" course. As a result, some students eventually“discard the classics and rebel against orthodoxy”, engaged in revolutionary activities.[2]
Academic achievements
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Confucian classics
Zhang Zhidong is well versed in Confucianism and Confucian classics, and advocates "understanding the classics and applying them" and“Practical”。At the age of 24, Zhang Zhidong wrote in a poem about generations: "Be kind and keep the family law, be loyal and good and repay the national grace, learn the classics for the world, and keep the Confucian classics.".[21]This not only shows the formation of his thought of "understanding the classics and applying them", but also predicts his future career.Before and at the beginning of his term of office, his activities to revitalize Confucianism were mainly shown in the following aspects:
Zhang Zhidong wrote the Book List Q&A Volume I
（1） There are many academies and schools of righteousness to expand the scope of Confucianism.When Zhang Zhidong was an academic officer, he set up Jingxin Academy and Zunjin Academy in Hubei and Sichuan respectively, which can be seen from the name of the Academy with "Jing".When he first became governor, he was even morerealize one 's ambition, advocating "reducing social funds to learn in a broad sense", "exempting the school from official duties", "clearing the academic field to restore the old seal", "raising funds to build the academy", etc[22]。
（2） He compiled two books, Light Xuan Yu and Shumu Answering Questions, discussed the scholars and cultivated the academic seeds of Confucianism.Both of these books were completed in 1875, when Zhang Zhidong was in charge of education and politics in Sichuan.In these two books, he expounded the academic thought of "understanding the classics and applying them", pointed out the academic path for young students, acted as a "teacher", showed the academic vision that was difficult for ordinary feudal bureaucrats and pedants to reach, and became a powerful tool to revitalize and glorify the traditional academic with Confucianism as the core in the late Qing Dynasty.
（3） Advocate and take the lead in printing academic books to provide convenience for scholars to study Confucianism.In "Answers to Bibliography", Zhang Zhidong wrote a special column "Advising people to carve books". He believed that "people who carve books should pass on the essence of the sages, enlighten the difficulties of later learning, and also be the priority of helping others, and talk about good deeds.[23]”
Zhang Zhidong likes to study scriptures. According to his later years, he said, "I am sorry that he was most committed to the changes, rituals, and spring and autumn in his life. He wanted to go back and write several scriptures, but things didn't work out as he wanted.[24]”He believes that there are many ways to learn the way of application, but we must first "understand the classics", because in order to learn, we must "have the foundation".This "origin" is "the root of learning people's reason"."I think Peiran has its origin, and who can resist all learning, and who wants its end to be useful. The talent of the world comes from learning, and learning has to first seek the scriptures... Its potential and its order are also natural.[25]”
library
Zhang Zhidong has also made special contributions to China's cultural construction.When he was governor of Huguang, he first createdLianghu Academy, and founded in GuangdongGuangya Book CompanyAnd set up a library.Financing constructionHubei Provincial Library andHunan LibraryAnd successively opened up around the 30th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1904).He also worked with Duan Fang and others to organize the Beijing Normal University Library. He believed that "the library is an academic hotbed, and the Beijing Normal University is especially the audio-visual world. The scale must be ambitious, and the collection must be extremely detailed, which is enough for many scholars to study.".Personally select the museum site, purchase the books collected by the famous book collectors Gui'an Yao and Nanling Xu, and combine the old collections of the Imperial AcademyCapital Library 。Please send the editor Miao Quansun as the supervisor of the Beijing Normal Library.He also worked on behalf of the Beijing Normal University Library and the provincial libraries to formulate regulations, making outstanding contributions to the construction of the National Library.Zhang Zhidong's family is also rich in ancient books. There are only dozens of books in the Song and Yuan dynastiesGlass Street, return with full load.Bibliophilenoted scholar-official and bibliophileThere were exiled old collections.Its books, articles, letters, slips and telescripts are《Complete Works of Zhang Wenxiang》, a total of more than 100 volumes.
bibliography
Zhang Zhidong is proficient in bibliography.In the 13th year of Tongzhi (1874), when he was a student in Sichuan, he wrote《Youxuan Language》, specializing in research methods, scientific articles and relevant programs.Written in the second year of Guangxu (1876)《Bibliography Q&A》It is a bibliography listing 2200 kinds of books to indicate the path of learning.Focus on the Qing Dynasty, especiallyQianjiaSince then, academic works have been divided into five parts, namely, classics, history, classics, collections, and series, each of which is divided into several categories. The category examples do not stick to the "Siku General Catalogue", which expounds the relationship between reading research, edition research, and bibliography, which has the value of summarizing the academic research achievements of the Qing Dynasty, and enriches the content of ancient bibliography.[26]
Calligraphy
Zhang Zhidong's calligraphySu ShiAnd is well known.He is also good at "rice body". His strokes are vigorous, handsome, bold and unrestrained.Zhang Zhidong once directedZhang PeilunHe privately gave "Shujue", which is called "to seek from two characters, to seek richness in combination, and to seek lubrication in writing". The natural richness and development of brushwork are common styles of his calligraphy.
Character evaluation
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Qing governmentThe imperial edict praised Zhang Zhidong: ① public loyalty, integrity and selflessness. ②Promote new policies to benefit the country and people.
Representative figures of the reformists in the late Qing DynastyTan SitongHe said: "Today's men are especially capable of taking into account the overall situation, regardless of the field, and they can change their power. Those who focus on giving alms should only have one Xiangshuai.[27]”
Manager of Hanyeping Company in the first year of Xuantong (1909)Sedum eyespotThe comment said: "If Zhang Zhidong had sent people abroad to make a detailed investigation when he was founded, maybe success could be faster and waste less money. However, the atmosphere at that time was blocked, and he was fatuous, and he did it recklessly without Zhang Zhidong. He was afraid of smelting iron, ping-pong, and coal. So far, there are still many rocks and gullies, which is unknown, and even the merits and sins are hard to say."
《The Dagong Daily》When Zhang Xiangguo was ill, some feared that he would die, and some feared that he would not die.Criticism: Zhang Xiangguoyi has no purpose, no political opinions, and drifts with the tide. Those who flatter the Lord to seek glory also... The life of Zhang Xiangguoyi relies on the word "loyal to the king" to encourage the whole country.
《declare》: Gu Zhuo is a rare talent among the ministers of the Han Dynasty in recent decades, and also a number of figures in the 34th year of the Guangxu Dynasty.
《la presse》If compared with the wise officials of all ages, Zhang Zhidong is worthy of being a good official, a competent official and a good official.
Zhao Erxun, the editor in chief of the History of the Qing Dynasty - Biography of Zhang Zhidong: ① Zhidong has a short body and a huge beard, and its appearance is dignified.When you visit an official, you will be successful.Great business, regardless of the cost.Love is hospitable, and celebrities and scholars are competing for it.I have been living in Xinjiang for decades, and when I die, my family will not increase one mu of cloud.[40]② Weizhidong was called a virtuous man for a while, but he was the governor of the country. He was pro noble and used things. He wanted to save but could not, so he worried about death.What can we say about the loss of people and the waste of our country?[40]
On April 15, 1912, the Times carried the bourgeois revolutionary mentorSun Yat-sen"He was a great revolutionist who created Chucai with Nanpi and subverted Manzuo."[41]
U.S.AWilliam Ayers, a famous scholar, commented that in Zhang Zhidong's life, the form of Chinese education has undergone fundamental changes, for which his efforts are decisive.[28]
Proletarian Revolutionist Mao ZedongThe evaluation said that when it comes to China's national industry,heavy industryDon't forget Zhang Zhidong.[29]
Zhang Jixi: It is often said that China is not poor in wealth, but poor in talents. Therefore, it is the first task to seek talents and govern the country.
Famous historian and scholar in TaiwanSu YunfengThe evaluation said that the most important factor for the success of Hubei's education reform is the leadership of Zhang Zhidong. Zhang Zhidong's contribution to education reform is not limited to Hubei, but has national significance.Zhang Zhidong was the founder of the modernization of Hubei education. His great educational thought trained a large number of talents for Hubei, and made Hubei form a new group of intellectuals whose knowledge and values were different from those of traditional literati, which was active in the political arena at the end of the Qing Dynasty.
Main works
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His works include Jing Jing, Complete Works of Zhang Wenxiang Gong, Zhang Zhidong's Family Letters, Pains and Dreams Before and After the Reform Movement of 1898: Persuasion of Learning, Detailed Notes on Light Xuanyu, and Two Kinds of Book Answers.
"Reading the History of the Song Dynasty", "Jiuqu Pavilion", "West Mountain", "Climbing Caishiji"[2]Sorrow Time, A Song Showing Fan Mountain in the Daylight[30]"Worship the Tomb of Bamboo Slope", "Song of Picking Mulberry", "People's Day Tour of the Thatched Cottage Temple", "Du Gongbu Temple", "Five Loyalties Chanting the Rigorous Uncle of Shiqian Prefecture Magistrate", "Employing Batulu in Zhongyue Boying on the West Road", "Si'nan School Instructing Zhang Hongyuan", "Ceheng Prefecture Tongyun Qiwei Liu Baoshan", "Sending Mo Zisi to Zhaozhou to visit the governor of Chen"
Zhang Zhidong's schedule is different from that of ordinary people. He goes to bed at 2 p.m. and gets up at 10 p.m. to work.president of the Supreme CourtXu ZhixiangThe impeachment of Zhang Zhidong and Gu En's assumption of duty, "the prosperity and residence are irregular and the orders are endless".Later, Guangdong GovernorLi HanzhangIt said: "If you are praised, you will be at work all day and night, and you will be industrious and careless. If you are destroyed, you will be told that there is no discipline in your life, and you will be ordered all the time. Since you have not delayed things, you will not be able to discuss these details in depth.".When Zhang Zhiwan wrote to Zhang Zhijing, he said: "Xiang Tao (Zhang Zhidong) is infallible in everything he eats and lives. He likes to breed cats. There are often dozens of cats in his bedroom, and he feeds them himself. Cats sometimes die on books and take handkerchiefs to clean them up. They don't think they are filthy. He also said to the waiter and waiters, 'Cats are ignorant and can't be blamed. If people do this, they can't be forgiven.'"
Zhang Liang Miao Lian
In the late Qing Dynasty,Liang QichaoGo to Guangzhou to meet Zhang Zhidong, the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi.At that time, Zhang Zhidong was an important figure in the Qing government.Liang Qichao was determined to improve, wanted to reverse the decline of the Qing Dynasty, and placed great hopes on Zhang Zhidong.After Liang Qichao arrived in Guangzhou, Zhang Zhidong sent the first couplet to Liang Qichao.The couplet reads: "Put on a good coat, hold the nine immortal bones, and call yourself Foolish Brother." The first couplet is arrogant and rude, and keeps people away from thousands of miles.Liang Qichao was very generous, and he was right about the second couplet. He invited someone to send back to Zhang Zhidong: "Traveling thousands of miles, reading thousands of books! Chivalrous men have ambition to be proud of princes." The answer was neither humble nor overbearing, reasonable, elegant, and awe inspiring.When Zhang Zhidong saw it, he immediately went out of the Yamen to meet him.
Later, Zhang Zhidong was transferred to the governor general of Huguang and became more famous and arrogant.Once Liang Qichao visited him in Jiangxia, Zhang Zhidong asked for the right: "The four rivers are the first, and the four seasons of summer are the second. Who is the first, and who is the second?" The first couplet not only includes the four rivers (referring to the ancient rivers, rivers, Huaihe River, and Jishui River), but also includes the four seasons of spring, summer, autumn, and winter, and summer is the second.Then, the difficult question of "who is the first and who is the second?" was raised.
The quick witted Liang Qichao, after a little reflection, ingeniously answered the second couplet: "The three sects of Confucianism are the first, and the three talents are the last. How dare you be the first, and how dare you be the last?" Zhang Zhidong read it repeatedly, and could not help sighing: "This scholar is really a genius in the world!" Liang Qichao's second couplet was unusual.He took his own identity as a "Confucian person". In the three religions of ancient Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, Confucianism was the first, and in the three talents of heaven, earth and people, talent was the last.Liang Qichao skillfully said "who is the first and who is the second?" with "who dares to be the first and who dares to be the second", which has far-reaching implications. It not only frustrates the pride of the other party, but also does not lose the courtesy of the host and guest. No wonder Zhang Zhidong is impressed by it.
And Zaifeng
Zhang Zhidong and Zaifeng are at odds.One said that when Zhang Zhidong was seriously ill, the Regent Zaifeng visited him in person.After all, Zhang Zhidong was an old minister of the four dynastiesthink constantly ofThe world is safe, and he proposed to appease the people.Zaifeng, the regent, proudly said, "Don't be afraid, there are soldiers." Zhang Zhidong never said anything about the national economy and people's livelihood before the regent.After Zaifeng left, someone asked Zhang Zhidong what the Regent said. Zhang Zhidong said it was "the voice of national subjugation".That night, Zhang Zhidong died in the lament of "the national fortune is over".[2]
Zhang YingHe was born in the 58th year of Qianlong's reign (August 1791-1856), with the word Youfu and the word Chuntan.[28]
mother
Zhu Bijun, a native of Guilin, Guangxi, was born in a famous familyQiongzhou(Present SichuanQionglai）Daughter of Zhu Shaoen, Zhili Prefecture Governor.[54]
Wives and concubines
First Lady
Shi, from Luanzhou, Duyun Prefecture, GuizhouShi XuFemale, died of illness in 1865.
Stepwife
Madam Tang, a native of Zunyi, Guizhou Province, and a governor of Hubei ProvinceTang ShuyiShe died in 1872.
Third Lady
Mrs. Wang,Wang YirongHis sister died in March 1879.
brother
paternal male third cousins older than oneself
Zhang Zhiwan(1811-1897) Minister of the Ministry of War, later transferred to the Ministry of Punishment.At the age of 87Taibao, posthumously named Wenda.
younger brother
Zhang Zhiyong settled in Wuhan, Hubei Province.
children
Son
The eldest son: Zhang Renquan, the second son: Zhang Renting, the third son: Zhang Renkan;Four sons: Zhang Renshi, five sons: Zhang Renle;Six sons: Zhang Renli;Ten sons: Zhang Renbao[33][43]
Zhang Zhidong's Old HouseLocated in Xicheng District, BeijingBaimixie StreetLubei.The gate is in Baimixie Street, with screen wall, Shangmashi and splayed gate wall outside.At the back is Shichahai Qianhai.There are three small buildings in the sea, two flower halls in front of the middle building, corridors on all sides, and seven middle buildings. It is a tall building with city bricks.The east floor is 5 rooms and 2 floors wide.The west floor is 6 rooms wide and has 2 floors.In this imposing house, Zhang Zhidong spent the last two years of his life.
Baobing Hall
In the south of Snake Mountain, WuchangSnake MountainShouyi ParkInside.Zhang Zhidong, Governor of Huguang in the 33rd year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu in the Qing Dynasty (1907), was transferredMinister of Military AircraftWhen he left Hubei, he built this hall in memory of his students and colleagues in Hubei.Because Zhang Zhidong's evening number is "holding the ice", he uses the words "holding the ice in winter, holding the fire in summer" in Wu Yue Spring and Autumn to encourage himself, so it is named.It was repaired in 1953.Brick wood structure, stone platform foundation, 5 rooms wide, 3 rooms deep, nine ridges and four slope roofs, and a veranda under the eaves, beautiful in shape and exquisite in structure.The beam purlin doors and windows are carved with various animal and flower patternsOpenwork carving, set off against each other, with density alternating;The artistic technique is bold and vivid, neat and lifelike, and unique in style.The hall displays those made during the reign of Emperor Guangxu (1875-1908)Yellow Crane TowerModel.Surrounded by flowers and trees, rockeries, lakes and rocks, it is full of fun and pleasant scenery.Renovation was carried out in 1985. Lai She was first set up and later expanded to the "Oriental Gallery". Calligraphy, painting and photography exhibitions were held irregularly.
