Market（market）It is a variety of systems in which all parties participate in the exchange,mechanism, procedures, legal strengthening and infrastructure.Although parties can exchange goods and services through barter, most markets rely on the seller to provide goods or services (including labor) in exchange for the buyer's money.It can be said that the market is the process of establishing the price of goods and services.The market promotes trade and promotesresource allocation 。The market allows any tradable item to be evaluated and priced.The market appears more or less spontaneously, or canInterpersonal interactionDeliberately constructed to exchange rights (such as ownership) for services and goods.The market usually replaces the gift economy, usually through rules and customs (such as booth fees, competitive pricing, source of goods sold, local agricultural products or stock registration) and military or police threats if these rules are broken.
The market may be affected by the products sold（goods，service）Or factor（the laborandcapital）, product differentiation, exchange location, buyer targeting, duration, sales process, government regulation, tax, subsidies,minimum wage, price ceiling, transaction legitimacy,mobility, speculative intensity, scale, concentration, transaction asymmetry, relative price, volatility and geographical extension.The geographical boundaries of the market may vary greatly, such as the food market in a single building, the real estate market in a local city, the consumer market in the whole country, or the economy of an international trade group to which the same rules apply.The market can also be global, such as the global diamond trade.The national economy can also be divided into developed markets or developing markets.
Market generally refers to the field of commodity exchange.Such as international market, domestic market, rural market, etc.
ShaanxiprovinceWugong CountyIs the ancestor of Chinese farming civilizationminister of agriculture under legendary ShunIt is said that every spring in ancient times, Hou Ji taught farmers in front of the teaching platformCrop farmingAnd grant people farming technology.Every year on the seventh day of November in the lunar calendar, people from all over the world gather together to teach crops in the east beach of the Shishui River, bring their own harvest to thank Houji, and begin to barter. China's earliest market began here.
《Zhouyi·Copula》On the origin of the market, Sima Guang wrote: "Shennong is the market in the middle of the day, to the people of the world, to gather the goods of the world, to trade and retreat, and each has his own place." In the Zizhi Tongjian, Sima Guang also said: "Shennong is the market in the middle of the day, to the people of the world, to gather the goods of the world, to trade and retreat, and this is the beginning of the establishment of the market." Both of these statements believe that the original market began to emerge from the era of Shennong.However, Shennong is a legendary ancient emperor, not necessarily a real person.However, one thing can be sure that our ancient society entered the agricultural period, and after the social productivity had developed to a certain extent, the ancestors began to have a small amount of surplus products to exchange, thus creating the original market.
The original markets are: Marketplace."City" was also called "marketplace" in ancient times.This is because the initial transactions were carried out at the well side.The Justice in the Records of the Historian wrote: "In ancient times, people gathered to draw water, and sold everything they had. Because the market became a city, it became a market." In ancient times, before the formal market was built, it was often "because the well became a market".This has two advantages, one is to provide convenience for traders and livestock to use water, and the other is to wash commodities.According to the General Customs, "Washing on the well makes you fragrant and clean." Later, wells were set up near towns in Shaanxi Province for businessmen to drink horses.This legacy of ancient times has been continued.Until liberation, it can still be seen in villages and towns."Marketplace" has also been used.
Zhou Dynasty
In the official market of the Zhou Dynasty, daily trading activities were held in three times: "morning market" in the morning, "big market" in the afternoon, and "evening market" in the evening.All participants in the Xishi trade are small traders.The market has a door.Entering the market for trading is called "entering the market". When entering the market, there are petty officials standing at the door to maintain the order of entering the market.The trading places of the market are called "four".In the same market, there are several stores according to different varieties.There are houses for storing goods in the city, called "Chan", which is also the plank house of later generations.All stores are built by the government, so merchants must pay taxes on the goods they deposit, which is called "stores" (cloth, currency).The bond used in trade is called "quality agent".Among them, long coupons are called "quality", which are used to buy goods such as cattle and horses.Short coupons are called "agents", which are used to purchase weapons and rare things.Large markets use "quality" and small markets use "agent".The orders issued by market officials are called "market orders".Businessmen must obey the city order, or they will be punished.One way of punishment is to impose a fine, which is called "punishing the market".The market is not only the place for commodity trading, but also the execution ground for the government to execute criminals.When the executioner kills the criminal, he displays his body in public, which is called "abandoning the city".The market is both a place for "street people" and a place for execution, so the government does not allow dignitaries to enter the market at will.Those who enter will be punished.The Zhouli Diguan wrote: "When a wife crosses the market, she will be punished with one act; when a son crosses the market, she will be punished with one stroke; when a husband crosses the market, she will be punished with one cover; when a wife crosses the market, she will be punished with one curtain（Zheng KangchengIn other words, to maintain the identity of these people.Marketplace (Han Dynasty Stone Portrait Tomb)
Han Dynasty
In the Western Han Dynasty, there were six major commercial cities in China, led by Chang'an, the capital of the country.It relies on the convenience of land and water trade routes to connect with other famous commercial cities in China, such as Luoyang, Handan, Linzi, Wanzhou and Chengdu, forming a nationwide commercial network.Sima Qian said, "The place in Guanzhong is one third of the world, but the number of people is less than three; however, the number of people who are rich is six." It can be imagined that Chang'an City is more rich and rich.The business district of Chang'an is mainly distributed in nine cities.Among them, there are seven famous cities that can be tested, namely West City, Liushi City, East City, Xiaoli City, Direct City (named "Direct City" because prices are the same), Jiaomen City, and Jiaoting City.The plane of nine cities is square.266 steps for each party.All cities have walls, called "Tian", and their doors are called "A".There is a cross shaped passage in the city, called "tunnel".On both sides of the tunnel are "Liesi", also known as "Shilie", which is a building for displaying goods.Four separate trips, in order.Behind the column store, next to the city wall, there was a store for stacking goods, called "Di She", which was the "Chan" of the Zhou Dynasty.As long as businessmen operate in the city, they should be registered in the register, called "city register".People who have obtained city registration have to pay "city rent" to the government.The city's administrative organ is located on the "flag pavilion" (also called "city building").From Zhang Heng in the Eastern Han Dynasty《Xijing Fu》According to the description of "Guo Kai Jiu City, there are five banners and pavilions, overlooking hundreds of tunnels", the buildings in Jiu City are spectacular.
According to the Records of the Historian, the commodities circulating in the market at that time were as follows: first, agricultural products, including grain, fresh vegetables (such as leeks, ginger), dried vegetables, etc;2、 Forest products, including logs, bamboo poles, firewood, fruits (such as oranges and wild fruits), dried fruits (chestnuts), etc;3、 Animal products, including cattle, sheep, pork, cowhide, sheepskin, pigskin, horns and tendons of livestock;4、 Fishery products, including fresh fish, dried fish and small miscellaneous fish;5、 Sideline products, such as bean paste, wine, milk (acid drinks), silk, cotton wool, wool, fox skin, etc;6、 Handicraft products, such as ox carts, drawn carts, lacquerware, bronze, iron, Zhan mats, wood, etc;7、 Mineral products, such as red sand.In addition, there are slaves who are sold as labor."On Salt and Iron · Lack of Scattering" lists many cooked foods in Chang'an: Yang dolphin and leek eggs, dog carp and horse belly, fried fish and liver, sheep drowned and chicken cold, horse cheese wine, Jian Yu stomach preserved, shy lamb beans, enough glue and goose soup, self abalone and sweet gourd, hot sorghum and broiled.There are also fortune tellers in Chang'an.In Historical Records, Biographies of Japanese People, it is recorded that in the early years of the Western Han Dynasty,Jia YiThey went to Dongshi to visit Sima Jizhu, the diviner.The marketplace is also the place of execution.
According to《The History of the Han Dynasty》It is recorded that during the reign of Emperor Jing of the Han Dynasty, the imperial doctorChao CuoDressed in court clothes and chopped in Dongshi, "parents and wives with the same birth (same mother and brother) are all abandoned".Later, "Dongshi Chaoyi" became an allusion, specifically referring to the killing of ministers.In addition to nine cities, Chang'an has some relatively small markets.For example, the Imperial College students gathered in the locust forest near the Imperial College every month to trade their local properties, classics, books, musical instruments, etc“Huai City”。In Guanzhong area, many people become rich through business.Some people get rich by usury or hoarding, while others get rich by selling milk and stomach.At that time, the folk proverb said, "If you want to be rich from poverty, agriculture is not as good as industry, and industry is not as good as business; embroidery is not as good as relying on the market gate." Under the social atmosphere of becoming rich from business, many farmers left their fields and came to the city to do business.The abnormal phenomenon of "less farmers and farmers, more business travelers, and more goods due to lack of grain maturity" has formed.During the Han Dynasty, the "Silk Road" across Europe and East Asia was gradually unblocked.Foreign envoys and merchants came to Chang'an in an endless stream.They brought their own specialties in exchange for Chinese goods, and these people all lived in Manyi Mansion on Chang'an Gaojie Street.Manyi Mansion belonged to a diplomatic and commercial official, namely Dahonglu.
Song dynasty
1. The boundaries between the city and the square were broken, and the operating time limit was also broken.Trading activities are no longer under the direct supervision of the government.
2. "Grass eating" is more common in suburban and rural areas.
At the historical moment when China's economic and social development has entered a new stage and the reform has been comprehensively deepened, only by correctly playing the role of the market and the government, can we become an expert in controlling the relationship between the government and the market and use it freely“Invisible hand”And the "visible hand" can really promote the sustainable and healthy development of China's economy and society.[1]
Market characteristics
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The market is the product of social division of labor and commodity production. Where there is social division of labor and commodity exchange, there is a market.
The three factors that determine the market size and capacity: buyers, purchasing power, and purchasing desire.
At the same time, in the process of its growth and expansion, the market also promotes the further development of social division of labor and commodity economy.Through information feedback, the market directly affects what people produce, how much they produce, the time to market, product sales, etc.Connect the production, supply and marketing parties in the process of commodity economy development, and provide exchange places, exchange time and other exchange conditions for the production, supply and marketing parties, so as to realize commodity producersoperatorAnd consumers' respective economic interests.
spontaneity
In the market economyeconomic activityAll inLaw of valueThe pursuit of their own interests under the spontaneous regulation of, in fact, is to determine their own production and business activities according to the price fluctuations. Therefore, the first role of the law of value is spontaneous regulationMeans of productionWhile the distribution of labor in various departments and the rational allocation of resources play a positive role in promoting, it also makes some individuals or enterprises produce improper behaviors due to excessive pursuit of the interests of the whole body, such as producing and selling fake and inferior products;Bully the market and disturb the market order;Everything is about money, not about professional ethics.andLaw of valueThe spontaneous adjustment ofPolarizationThe resulting contradictions will not be conducive to the healthy development of economy and society.
Blindness
Under the condition of market economy,economic activityThe participants are all scattered in their respective fields. It is impossible for a single producer and operator to grasp the information of all aspects of society and control the trend of economic change. Therefore, when making business decisions, he only observes what is high in price and profitable in the market, and decides what to produce and operate accordingly, which is obviously blind.This kind of blindness often makes the societyAnarchy, which will inevitably cause economic fluctuations and waste of resources.
Hysteresis
In the market economy, market regulation is a kind of post adjustment, that is, the participants in economic activities make the decision to expand or reduce the supply or decrease of a commodity only after the price rises or falls due to the imbalance of supply and demand of that commodity.In this way, from the imbalance between supply and demand - price change - making a decision - to achieving the balance between supply and demand, it will inevitably take a long and short process, with a certain time difference.In other words, although the market is timely and sensitive, it cannot reflect the long-term trend of supply and demand.When people compete to produce a product in pursuit of high prices in the market, the social demand for the product may have reached the saturation point, while the commodity producers continue to produce in large quantities there. Only when the price drops due to unsalable sales, they suddenly realize.
Perfect competitive market refers to a market with only competitive factors and no monopoly factors, but it is difficult to find a perfect competitive market in full sense in real life, only a perfect competitive market with infinite proximity[2]
Monopolistic competitive market is a market where monopoly and competitive factors coexist, but there are more competitive factors. Such markets are infinitely close in real life, such asretail[2]
Oligopoly market
Oligopoly marketIt also belongs to the market where monopoly and competition factors coexist, but there are more monopoly factors. Such market is typical of manufacturers such as automobile, aircraft, oil, communication and other industries[2]
Totally monopolized market
A completely monopolized market is a market in which the only manufacturer monopolizes the whole industry without competition from other manufacturers[2]
function
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The function of the market is usually manifested in the following main aspects: (1)Resource allocationFunction: through the survival of the fittest, the limited resources are concentrated in the hands of more advanced enterprises and operators, so as to achieve reasonable allocation.(2) The function of balancing supply and demand: the price is affected by the relationship between supply and demand. If the supply of goods in the market exceeds the demand, the price of goods will fall, and operators will reduce production scale and output level;If the supply of goods in the market is less than the demand, the price of goods will rise, and enterprises will increase investment, improve the output level, and finally achieve the goal of commoditiesbalance between supply and demand。(3) Interest adjustment function: everyone is pursuing the maximization of their own interests, which leads to the spontaneous withdrawal of capital and labor from the departments with poor benefits and the influx of good ones.In addition, the government cooperates with tax and interest rate to adjust interests.(4) The service function of the market system: facilities and institutions providing services for commodity trading, such as bankstrust company, insurance, technical consultation, etc., to provide various conveniences for the market.(5) Information transmission and feedback function: In the market, producers, operators and consumers can understand the market situation and reasonably arrange production and consumption through the transmission and feedback of supply and demand, price and other information.
theoretical research
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Neoclassical
On the Wealth of Nations
FromAdam SmithThe so-calledClassical liberalismThought that the ideal resource distribution order depends on a private market that can produce goods and provide services, and its core feature is decentralizationPrivate property rightsSystem and price system that can fluctuate freely.Among them, price and price related profits are important information content that can be provided by the market, which can guide resources to those who can make full use of them.After nearly two centuries of development and evolution, this view has gradually emerged as the mainstream neoclassical market theory in the West.[3]
Macroeconomics
Keynes
Economy in the 1920s and 1930s“Great Depression”Forcing western economic theorists to reflect on the definition of market in classical theory.The final answer is that complete laissez faire is no good. Sometimes the invisible hand does not exist, and the market will fail. The government should intervene in the "total amount" of economic activities, so "macroeconomics" was born.Franklin Delano RooseveltAnd acceptedKeynesAnd implement the "New Deal" of government intervention in the economy.Of course, these are no longer "new" policies.
New system
Adam Smith
In the face of market failure,CoaseHowever, the opposite answer is given: the problem of external utility does not need government intervention, but can be solved by clarifying the relevant property rights to use the market.Zhang Wuchang was even more absolute. He said that there was no so-called external utility at all, only an ambiguous state of property rights.If classical economists explained that "market" is a "laissez faire order", Coase would answer how to achieve "laissez faire order" or“price mechanism ”。
world market
first,world marketbycommunismTo provide material conditions for production and development.From the Middle Ages, the formation and development of the world market promoted the continuous improvement of productivity, production level, world production index and production and consumption of all countries.When the expansion and deepening of the world marketproductivityWhen it reaches a sufficiently high level, "it will make people realize that capital itself is the biggest limit of this trend, and thus drive people to use capital itself to eliminate capital."[4]
