carving up of a country by warlords

The phenomenon of self clique army separatism

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The warlord separatism refers to the phenomenon that the soldiers who own the army, form their own factions, or the military groups occupy one side and do not obey the orders of the central government.

The phenomenon of warlord separatism has existed at all times and in all countries. Although China is a country with a long history of unification, there was also warlord separatism when the central government declined or changed in troubled times. The warlord separatism in Chinese history is represented by the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the end of the Tang Dynasty, the Five Dynasties and the Republic of China.

The warlord separatism had a profound impact on Chinese history. The common phenomenon in the separatist regime period is that war and annexation are frequent, and it is difficult to ensure the safety of people's lives and property; Social production and construction and commodity market circulation are blocked or damaged; Tearing of social consciousness and social identity; The internal and external emptiness weakens the strength of the country and the nation. After a period of separatism, the relative strength of the central government and the country will decline and even result in the invasion of foreign enemies.

Chinese name: carving up of a country by warlords
Foreign name: carving up of a country by warlords

Main period: Late Han Dynasty, Late Tang Dynasty, Five Dynasties, Ten Kingdoms, Republic of China
representative figure: Liu Biao, An Lushan, Wu Peifu, Duan Qirui, Zhang Zuolin, Feng Yuxiang

catalog

one explain
two Causes
three In Chinese history
▪ Late Eastern Han Dynasty
▪ Late Tang Dynasty - Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
▪ Republic of China

▪ Other periods
four Phenomena in other countries
five Chronology of the Republic of China
▪ 1916
▪ 1917
▪ 1918
▪ 1919

▪ 1920
▪ 1921
▪ 1922
▪ 1923
▪ 1924
▪ 1925
▪ 1926

explain

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The warlord separatist regime is a kind of separatist regime, and its subject is the warlord.

Warlords mean normal Country of system Inside, from factions Of soldier To form a military bloc, divide the territory of the country into spheres of influence, use military means to divide one side, and control the appointment of administrative, judicial, educational, tax and other government agencies and subordinate officials in the separatist region. Warlords are the product of the weakening of the central government and centralization. Warlords generally ignore the existence of the central government, and some even compete with the central government. Its military bloc is only subordinate to the military leaders and not to the central government.

The separatist regime refers to the separation and occupation, that is, the occupation of a territory and the establishment of political power.

Causes

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The central government has delegated too much power

For the purposes of border opening, border security, spending reduction, counter insurgency, and checks and balances, the central government tends to delegate some power to the local government or the military, and sometimes the power of the local government and the military gathers in one person or position. This is a great test of the ability of the central government to govern. The lack of control and flexibility may lead to the decline of the central power and the expansion of local forces.

Local governments have the foundation of independent regimes

To some extent, it can be considered that warlord separatism and local separation are one and two sides - local armed forces can maintain self-reliance; Local geographical conditions, resource endowments and economic foundation are important conditions for the army to maintain combat effectiveness and independent regime. A region with good conditions can stimulate the ambition and desire of warlords.

The army and the local government form a stable combination

Under the closed economic condition of long-term self-sufficiency, if military officers hold local posts (such as the governor in the Tianbao period) for a long time, or local officials hold the power of recruiting and raising soldiers (such as the state herdsmen in the late Han Dynasty), the military and local governments are likely to form a symbiotic relationship. One of the reasons why it was difficult for the Tang Dynasty to flatten the three towns in Hebei was that they could not be separated from the local social life.

Interference of external forces

Some external interference will affect the central government's policy towards the local government, some will affect the local government's implementation of the central government's decree, some will support local forces to confront the central government, and even directly send troops to intervene. This was evident in the warlord era of the Republic of China. Behind the three northern warlords, there are foreign powers; Even the Chiang Kai shek government in the future was supported by the British and American powers.

In Chinese history

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Late Eastern Han Dynasty

In the Qin Dynasty, the system of prefectures and counties was introduced to the whole country, and in the early Han Dynasty, the system of enfeoffment was combined, so it was called the parallel system of prefectures and counties. After the middle period of the Western Han Dynasty, the feudal power was declining, and the prefectures and counties became the most local administrative organs. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, thirteen provincial commissions were set up, and a first level supervisory organization was added to the prefectures and counties.

In 184, in order to suppress the Yellow Scarf Uprising, the central government of the Eastern Han Dynasty allowed local governments and local aristocrats to recruit troops on their own.

In 188, according to Liu Yan's suggestion, the central government changed the governor to the state herdsman. Formerly as a supervisory agency dispatched by the central government Assassin It has become a master of local administration, finance and military power governor 。

The independent recruitment of soldiers has greatly increased the military strength of local big families, and the decentralization of state herdsmen has enabled powerful and ambitious clans and powerful aristocratic families to steal local power in good name. (The patriarchal clan such as Liu Yan and Liu Biao separately divided Yizhou and Jingzhou) So far, the separatist regime has been formed, the central government exists in name only, and history has entered a period of competition.

(See Heroes at the end of Han Dynasty ）

Late Tang Dynasty - Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

During the reign of Emperor Ruizong of the Tang Dynasty, in order to prevent foreign invasion, the Tang court expanded the military towns and established governor of one or more provinces 。 By the time of Xuanzong, there were nine envoys and one envoy A caretaker 。 Local governors hold heavy troops, and also hold other posts. They often have the power to finance and supervise the internal states and counties. The Jiedu envoy system was not only a sharp weapon for the Tang Dynasty to secure the border, but also a hidden danger for the decline of the Tang Dynasty.

In 755, he was also the envoy of three towns Anlu Mountain To launch a rebellion. In the process of counterinsurgency and subsequent stability maintenance, the central government relied more and more on the power of vassals, and there were more and more provincial envoys, strategic envoys, and observation envoys, until there was no place for them. Many of the vassals were loyal to the imperial court and accepted the appointment and dismissal of the central government, but they had certain independence in internal affairs; Some more Three Towns in Hebei As the representative vassals, they did not listen to the propaganda and even refused to obey the appointment of the Tang court. In the later period of the Mid Tang Dynasty, the situation of feudal separatism had actually taken shape. In the second year of Qianfu, the peasant war led by Huang Chao spread all over the country (north to the Yellow River, south to Guangzhou, east to the sea, west to Guanzhong), and the restriction system of vassal towns built by the Tang Dynasty was broken. After the peasant army invaded Chang'an, the prestige of the Tang Dynasty was lost, and the forces everywhere developed wantonly. Soon, it entered the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period of warlord warfare.

During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, although separatist regimes were initially formed in the local areas, the martial arts ideology prevailed in these regimes, and there were often some mountains in the military. Most of these regimes were short-lived, and many died in internal military coups. This is one of the most chaotic periods in Chinese history.

Republic of China

In the more than 30 years since the Republic of China government acted as China's (nominally) central government, the phenomenon of local support of troops and self-respect can be said to be accompanied by the whole process. The seeds of these phenomena were planted in the stormy late Qing Dynasty.

After more than ten years of Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement In (1851~1864), the Green Camp and the Eight Banners could not be used and could not be suppressed. The Qing government ordered local officials and gentry in all provinces to hold Group exercise Organize armed forces. During the suppression of the Taiping Army and the Westernization Movement, the Qing government gave some places the right to spend money and help themselves. This provides military and economic conditions for the separation of local areas.

The regimental training corps organized by these local power groups, while making outstanding contributions to the country, also naturally have the characteristics of taking their native place as the link and maintaining internal unity. For example, the military names: Hunan Army, Huai Army, Chu Army, etc., have obvious regional characteristics. Later, the main figures of the three armed forces of Hunan, Huaihe and Chu not only governed the military affairs, but also participated in the central government affairs, and sometimes held local positions. This kind of relationship is very delicate, which is similar to "entering into the inner phase, and going out into the outer king". In the Eight Power Allied Forces' War of Aggression against China (1900), Li Hongzhang (then the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi) and others (also the governor of Liangjiang) Liu Kunyi Governor of Huguang Zhang Zhidong Xu Yingkui, Governor of Fujian and Zhejiang, Kui Jun, Governor of Sichuan, Sheng Xuanhuai, Minister of Railways, and Governor of Shandong high Qing official ）He thought that China would be defeated. In order to preserve the region, he reached an agreement with the foreign powers on "mutual protection in the southeast" and ignored the war in the north. Later, Li Hongzhang was appointed as a negotiator by the Qing government. Regardless of Li Hongzhang's original intention, these events have shown that, The government of the Qing Dynasty was not unified, and the central control over the local areas had been greatly weakened ； The Qing government did not trust local and military power groups, but had to rely on them. In the era when the buildings are about to collapse, this adverse trend has not been reversed, but has been constantly exacerbated. In the future, warlords in the Republic of China fought in separate regimes, which had a certain relationship with this.

The local regimental training army once saved the Qing Dynasty from danger. After being included in the national regular army, these troops continue to play an irreplaceable role in safeguarding national sovereignty and territorial unity. However, with the development of the times and internal corruption, the combat effectiveness of Hunan Huai Chu and other regimental training forces has been declining, and they have been defeated in many important battles.

After the Sino Japanese War (1894), the Qing government began to prepare for the establishment of a new army. Before the Revolution of 1911, new armies in various provinces were prepared or established one after another. However, during the Revolution of 1911, the new army not only followed the revolutionaries, but also effectively loyal to the Qing Dynasty, or took advantage of the situation to speculate. Among them, the Wuchang New Army fired the first shot of the revolution; With Yuan Shikai as the core, the new Beiyang army stationed in the north was the biggest bargaining chip between the Qing government and the revolutionary forces. Yuan Shikai was ambitious and took advantage of the opportunity to become the President of the Republic of China. In the following years, the Northern forces continued to seek expansion, and most of the new armies of the former Qing Dynasty stationed in various places became local power groups, while Sun Yat sen and other revolutionaries were still active in the south.

Before and after Yuan Shikai amended the treaty and became emperor, a group of patriotic soldiers publicly broke with Yuan Shikai and no longer listened to his orders. In June 1916, Yuan died. The Beiyang forces then split into the Zhili and Anhui systems, and the Northeast Feng system led by Zhang Zuolin also became a family. The contradictions among the three systems are increasingly intensified, Zhiwan War , the Zhifeng war, the second Zhifeng war Northern Expedition War Such wars have followed, and there are countless small-scale warlord scuffles. These separatist regimes and contests are basically carried out on a provincial basis.

In December 1928, Feng warlord Zhang Xueliang announced the change of flag in the northeast and supported the Nanjing National Government. So far, the Northern Expedition ended. The Northern Expedition ended the Northern Warlord era, and the Nanjing National Government led by Chiang Kai shek formally unified China. However, warlords of all sizes still exist throughout the country, The Republic of China entered the stage of new warlords' scuffle.

The rise and contradictions of the new warlords in the east led to a new round of melee. The Chiang, New Gui, Feng, and Jin factions sometimes allied and sometimes engaged. Since the Chiang Clique had the strongest strength, the Chiang Government had the name of the central government, and its desire for annexation was the strongest, the war in this period was mostly related to the Chiang Clique. In 1930, the Central Plains War between the new warlords broke out, which was the largest warlord scuffle in modern China. In addition to these warlords, the birthplace of the Northern Expedition, Guangdong, was under Chen Jitang; Eight warlord leaders such as Liu Xiang gradually formed in Sichuan; Yunnan and Guizhou provinces are controlled by the Yunnan warlords; Han Fuju in Shandong and Ma's warlord in the northwest gradually separated from the Feng system, and the Feng system gradually collapsed; Xinjiang was successively controlled by Yang Zengxin and Sheng Shicai.

With the outbreak of the comprehensive war of resistance, the warlords temporarily stopped fighting and jointly resisted foreign aggression. At this stage, Chiang Kai shek took advantage of the opportunity to take over Sichuan and Chongqing, and controlled and mobilized other warlords as the central government and national righteousness, consuming the strength of other warlords and further expanding the strength of the Chiang clique.

It was not until the Liberation War that the PLA cleared up the warlord forces in mainland China.

Other periods

In addition to the above three periods, the warlord separatist regimes that had a greater impact in Chinese history also existed in the Qin and Han Dynasties, the two Jin Dynasties - the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the late Sui Dynasty and the early Tang Dynasty, the late Yuan Dynasty and the early Ming Dynasty, and the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties.

Phenomena in other countries

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Coincidentally, warlord separatism is also widespread around the world. The history of Japanese warlord separatism in East Asia is very long, represented by Japan's Warring States Period. historically, Alexander Empire 、 Imperium Romanum 、 Arab Empire 、 Mongol Empire 、 Ottoman Empire Such huge empires were faced with the problem of warlord separatism in the middle and later periods, and they did not have effective solutions, and some even broke up as a result.

The Ottoman Empire is relatively recent. In its declining period, its North African provinces have been out of control, such as Egypt Mamluk The group has essentially become autonomous. After the decline of Mamluk, a generation of lords dominated Egypt Mohammed Ali It once fought against the central government, and even attacked the Ottoman mainland in the north. Under the rule of Muhammad Ali, Egypt almost became an independent country.

The split situation in Western Europe is generally not regarded as warlord separatism, but under the long-standing feudal lord system, the actual jurisdiction of the central government is not as large as it seems, and most places are in the hands of feudal nobles with armies. These feudal nobles would perform corresponding obligations to the king (or emperor), but they also often passively performed obligations for their own interests, and even resisted the king (or emperor). At the same time, some nobles also have countless ties with their neighbors (such as the Duke of Normandy in France, and also the lord of England). This is similar to the situation of warlord separatism in some periods of Chinese history. This situation did not change until the central authority represented by the king expanded and the feudal nobility declined. From then on, the united nation state represented by France gradually formed.

Chronology of the Republic of China

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1916

June ， high Qing official After death, Beiyang Warlord Split into Zhili (today's Hebei) people Feng Guozhang Direct line headed by Anhui people Duan Qirui The leading Anhui clique. The representatives of the direct clique are Cao Kun ， Li Chun ， Chen Guangyuan ， Wang Zhanyuan He served as the governor of Zhili, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hubei and other provinces, forming the basic force of the Zhili Clique. The main figures of the Anhui Clique are Xu Shuzheng ﹑ Jin Yunpeng , Duan Zhigui Fu Liangzuo ﹑ Ni Sichong Etc. twice president of the republican government at Peking Duan Qirui was appointed as President, and Duan Qirui was appointed as State Premier and Chief of the Army, holding the power of the Beijing government. Duan Qirui relied on Cao Rulin Pro Japanese bureaucrats such as Li Yuanhong and most members of Congress objected to their eagerness to obtain Japanese assistance and actively advocated declaring war on Germany and Austria Hungary

1917

May Li Yuanhong exempted Duan Qirui At the post of State Premier, the Anhui clique instigated warlords in more than 10 provinces and regions to power on "independence" and send troops to Beijing.

July ， Zhang Xun Seize the opportunity to embrace the Qing Emperor Pu Yi Restoration. Duan Qirui led a military crusade, quickly defeated Zhang Xun, and regained control of the regime. The Anhui clique did not hesitate to sell the country's rights and borrowed foreign debt from Japan. They took the opportunity to train the "participating army", expand the strength of the Anhui clique, and advocate unifying the country by force.

autumn , launched a civil war in an attempt to eliminate the southern law protection forces led by Sun Yat sen.

1918

In the seventh year of the Republic of China (1918), due to the warlord scuffle, Sichuan The "defense area system" is implemented, and all warlords in Sichuan are divided into districts. Each defense area is an independent kingdom, and military orders and decrees throughout Sichuan are not unified.^[1]

autumn , consisting of Anfu Department The new Congress, whose members hold an absolute majority, is known as Anfu Congress in history. Anhui clique also used Anfu Congress to elect Xu Shichang replace Feng Guozhang President Direct warlord In order to implement a system of autocracy. The Anhui system's policy of unifying by force aroused the public indignation of the people all over the country and was also opposed by the generals of the direct line. The direct line, with the support of the United Kingdom and the United States, joined Israel Duan Qirui The Anhui clique, led by the Communist Party of China, launched a fierce struggle for the power of the central government

August The Anfu Congress manipulated by the Anhui clique elected Xu Shichang as president, replacing Feng Guozhang's authority

1919

December Feng Guozhang died of illness, Cao Kun and Wu Peifu became the leaders of the Zhili clique, and the power struggle among the Zhiwan warlords intensified

1920

July ， Zhiwan War In the outbreak, the Anhui clique was defeated by the Zhili and the Fengtian army. The Beijing government was under the control of the Zhili clique, Anhui warlord Gradually eliminated

After the Zhiwan War, Zhifeng and Fengfeng jointly launched the Zhiwan War, defeated the Anhui troops and jointly controlled the Beijing government.

In August, the Guangdong Guangxi War broke out. The Guangxi army used Shen Hongying as the commander in chief to attack Guangdong and fought with the Guangdong army under the command of Chen Jiongming.

From the middle of August to October of the same year, the Guangdong army turned from dangerous to safe

In November, the Guangxi army withdrew from Guangdong, ending the first Guangdong Guangxi War.

1921

In June, the old Guangxi Clique sent troops to Guangdong again to regain control of Guangdong and Guangxi, but it still ended in failure.

1922

April Burst for the first time Zhifeng War As a result, the Fengtian army was defeated and withdrew from the outside of the Shanhaiguan Pass. After the Zhili clique controlled the Beijing regime, it still pursued the policy of military unification, expelled Xu Shichang, helped Li Yuanhong to be re elected president, and instigated Guangdong's Chen Jiongming Launch a military coup to expel Sun Yat sen out of Guangdong Janssen Duchuan, Sun Chuanfang Du Min, Shen Hongying To supervise Guangdong

1923

February Wu Peifu committed the February 7th Massacre

June Cao Kun expelled Li Yuanhong in Beijing,

October Cao Kun stole the presidency through bribery, which made his direct line notorious and worsened the financial and economic situation

1924

September The Second Zhifeng War Burst

October Feng Yuxiang launched the "Beijing coup" and imprisoned Cao Kun. Wu Peifu was attacked from behind and the main force was wiped out, leading the remnant to flee south in haste

1925

In March, After Sun Yat sen's death, the Beijing regime was actually worshipped as a leader Zhang Zuolin Control. The former Zhejiang Governor Sun Chuanfang , became the most powerful leader in the later period of the direct line

October, Sun organized the allied forces in Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Jiangxi provinces to serve as their own commander-in-chief. Wu Peifu took the opportunity to go to Hankou to call himself the commander-in-chief of the allied forces in 14 provinces, including Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Hubei, Jiangxi, and Sichuan, and regroup the direct forces

1926

June, On the eve of the Northern Expedition, warlord head of the Zhili military faction It has about 200000 troops, occupying Hunan, Hubei, Henan, eastern Shaanxi and southern Hebei, controlling the Beijing Wuhan Railway Sun Chuanfang It has about 200000 troops, occupying Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi and other provinces. After the Northern Expedition, the National Revolutionary Army first destroyed Wu Peifu's main force in Hunan and Hubei, and then defeated Sun Chuanfang's army in Jiangxi and Fujian. Soon, the remnants of the Zhili army were also destroyed

1928

In June, Zhang Zuolin, who was then the commander of the Fengtian military government, was killed by the Japanese when he returned to Fengtian (today's Shenyang), and his son Zhang Xueliang succeeded the Fengtian commander in chief.

In December, Zhang Xueliang informed the whole country that he would change his position in the Northeast, obey the national government and believe in the Three People's Principles. The change of flag in the Northeast marked the formal completion of the national unity of the National Government and the end of the period of the Northern Warlords' separatism.

Dharmapala Movement

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Dharma protection movement is also called "Dharma protection war"

1917

July Zhang Xun's Restoration Sun Yat sen issued the "Declaration of Resistance", calling for law protection Duan Qirui As the premier of the Beijing government, Sun Yat sen refused to restore the National Assembly and implement the Provisional Constitution. Sun Yat sen issued a call to support the Constitution and restore the National Assembly, and led the navy stationed in Shanghai to Guangdong to join forces with the southwest warlords

August Sun Yat sen called the members of parliament from the south of Beijing to hold a congress in Guangzhou. Because there was not enough quorum, Sun Yat sen called it an extraordinary congress or "extraordinary congress" and decided to establish a military government to protect the law

September 1st , Sun Yat sen was elected Grand Marshal to lead the Yunnan Army, Guangdong Army And parts Gui Jun ， Guizhou Army ， Hunan army led by Zeng Guofan , Sichuan Army, etc., fight Beiyang Warlord Duan Qirui's military attack once defeated the Beiyang troops entering Hunan and Sichuan

1918

May , Sun Yat sen in the Guangxi warlord Lu Rongting The military government protecting the law became the political power of the southern warlords, and Beiyang Warlord Close up and brew the Peace Talk between South and North The Dharmapala Movement failed

Zhang Xun's Restoration

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Profile

Zhang Xun (1854~1923) was originally a Jiangnan commander in the Qing Dynasty. After the founding of the Republic of China, his team still wore braids, showing allegiance to the Qing Dynasty, hence the name of the headquarters Braid army He was promoted to Yangtze River commanding officer or civil administrative chief of a large region , commanding the stationing of 20000 troops Xuzhou One belt. After Yuan Shikai became emperor in 1916, the political situation was in turmoil. Zhang Xun took the opportunity to contact the old, the left behind and the royalists of the former Qing Dynasty Kang Youwei And actively prepare for the restoration

Event history

July 1917 The event that Puyi, the deposed emperor of the Qing Dynasty, was restored to power in Beijing for 12 days. Since this event was planned by Zhang Xun, it is called Zhang Xun's restoration in history

May 1917 , because of the question of whether to dissolve the Congress, President Li Yuanhong and State Premier Duan Qirui When a dispute arose, Li Yuanhong was forced to call Zhang Xun to Beijing for mediation. Zhang Xun led 3000 troops to June 14 Japan entered Beijing 30th In the evening, he entered the palace of the Qing Dynasty, held a "imperial meeting", and decided to restore the Qing Empire July 1st In the early morning, Zhang Xun put on the imperial costume and crown of the Qing Dynasty, led Kang Youwei and other party members, and embraced Fu Yi, who was 12 years old, to the throne Xuantong In the ninth year of the reign of Emperor Yi, the five color flag was called the dragon flag, and the official system was restored at the end of the Qing Dynasty Minister of Parliament ， Zhili Governor Concurrent Minister Beiyang The news spread that Sun Yat sen issued a declaration of rebellion in Shanghai, and mass organizations and celebrities in major cities gathered to get electricity to demand the crusade against Zhang Xun. Duan Qirui, with the help of the national opposition to the restoration and the financial support of the Japanese government, formed a "rebel army" in the horse factory near Tianjin on July 3, pledging to fight against Zhang Xun. Zhang's army was on the verge of collapse,

1917 July 12th Zhang Xun hurriedly fled to the Dutch Embassy, and Puyi announced his abdication again Duan Qirui to July 14th Go to Beijing and regain power

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