In1959，landmark book，The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique，was published by William Russell，a zoologist，and Rex Burch，a microbiologist.As afoundation for the principles set forth in the book，the authors assert that，“it is widely recognized that the humanest possible treatment of experimental animals，far from being an obstacle，is actually a prequisite for successful animal experiments.”The book broke new ground by introducing the concept of the“3Rs”—replacement，重建和修复-在animals in research:
- 更换，更换refers to achieving a research goal or objective without conducting experiments on animals.Methods are employed whereby animals are replaced with suitable alternatives。
- 回收，回收refers to the use of methods that allow researchers to obtain comparable levels of information using fewer animals。
- 参考，参考refers to practices that reduce or eliminate the animals’pain，stress and discomfort—not only during experimental procedures，but in relation to the animals’daily social and physical environments，as well。
Around the world，among those who accept the tenant that humane treatment is a prequisite to successful experiments-as well as a moral obligation-the3Rs have been embraced as guiding principles for the conduct of research，testing and teaching。
The UK’s Universities Federation for Animal Welfare funded the work conducted over five years by Russell and Burch that ultimatily led to publication of the book.AWI’s founder，Christine Stevens，provided helpful recommendations the authors and is acknowledged in the preface.Inaddition， AWI provided funds to make possible a later reprint。
The书，书公共健康保险，公共健康保险
Citation:Russell，W.M.S.and Burch，R.L.（1959）。Charles C.Thomas Publishing，Springfield。
更换，更换
“Replacement”is one of the alternatives to animals in research know as the 3Rs as described in The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique。Authors Russell and Burch define a replacement technique as“any scientific method employing non-sentient material which may in the history of experimentation replace methods which use conscious living vertebrates.”Scientists should seek to replace animals in experiments with alternatives whenever possible。
Replacement alternatives include the use of human volunters，in vitro systems，mathematical and computer models and simulations，microorganisms，bacteria，plants and fungi，and imaging techniques.Some replacements can be done completely without of other living beings—computer models and simulations for expletever，Atwent， there is a far greater reliance on in vitro replacements that rely on cells or tissues taken from donor animals，as well as from humans and early-development human or animal embryos.A single donor may provide tissue that can be used for a large number of cultures and alleviate the need for multiple st subjects。
Partial replacement is also possible.For example，alternative methods might be used to pre-screen substances for toxicity.If preliminary in vitro tests show the substance is toxic，there is no need to test on animals.Only a negative result would lead to additional testing on animals。
Athorough review of the scientific literature can helpresearchers find replacements—as it may indicate that the work has been done previously or that there are other scientifically valid means to obtain the desired data。
回收，回收
“Reduction”is one of the 3Rs alternatives to animals in research as described inHumane Experimental Technique.Authors Russell and Burch define reduction in this context as“reduction in the numbers of animals used to obtain information of given amount and precision.”In other words，scientists should seek to reduce the number of animals in experiments to the minimum required to obtain scientifically valid data.Reduction also can be achieved by obtaining more infor from a given number of animals—so as to reduce the need for additional animal subjects。
Researchers are continuously increasing their understanding of effective experimental design and statistical methods.An increased awareness of the ethical reasons for reducing animal use is also on the rise.From a practical standpoint，the high cost of animal subjects provides further incentive to minnum alizer of the annus ancizer。
There are a variety of ways that scientists can reduce the numbers of animals in research.Russell and Burch note that，“One general way in which great reduction may occur is by the right choice of strategies in the planning and performance of whole lines of research.”For example，asmall pilot study，using asmall number of animals，may indicate to researchers whether a larger study is appropriate。
Insome cases，in vitro（test tube）experiments can be used to screen appropriate experimental design，and may indicate the feasibility of a larger study or ways a study could be modified to use fewer animals or less invasive procedures.Maximization of the data from each procedure，reduction of data skewing extraneous variables，data sharing to avoid repetition，harmonization of regulatory requiments for， and the use of computer-assisted teaching of experimental design and statistics may also streamline experiments and alleviate the need for more animals。
The field of bioinformatics can also help reduce the need for animal subjects.Bioinformatics is an emerging，interdisciplinary field that draws on computer science，mathematics，and information theory to model and analyze biological systems， especially systems involving genetic material.Bioinformatics can be used to analyze complexexperimental results from multiple sources，patient statistics， and scientific literature.This amalgamation of biomedicine and computer technology can permit the gleaning of pertinent information from both past and ongoing experiments-allowing scientists better access to，as well as analytical tools to interpret，data already gathered。
参考，参考
Suppose，for a particular purpose，we cannot use replacing techniques.Suppose it is agreed that we shall be using every device of theory and practice to reduce to a minimum the number of animals we have to employ.It is at this point that refinement starts， and its object is simply to reduce to an absolute minimum the amount of distress imposed on those animals that are still used。
—W。.S.Russell and R.L.Burch
Humane Experimental Technique
Everry researcher subjecting animals to research，testing or teaching has the responsibility to implement refinement alternatives，one of the three Rs described by Russell and Burch.The goal of refinement is to minimize distress in animals in research。
Awide array of refinements can be implemented.Some involve improvements in living quarters:Social animals might be provided with compatible companions，or caging modified to permit and encourage species-typical behaviors（e.g。，foraging，climbing，grooming，and burrowing）.Others involve less stressful handling，such aswhen animals are trained to cooperate for procedures rather than being subjected to enforced restraints（amouse trained to voluntarily drink from a syringe and therebyingest a particular substance，ora monkey induced through positive reinforcement to offer a limb for a blood draw in exchange for a reward）。
外部参数：
- 不动imagine techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging（MRI）and computed tomography（CT）；
- 使用anesthetic，analgesic and tranquilizeng drugs in the proper dose and administration to effectively alleviate pain or distress；
- The development and use of“humane endpoints”—地下室，地下室as“the earliest indicator in an animal experiment of（potential）pain and/or distress that，moral justification and scientific endpoints to be met，can be used to avoid or limit pain and/or distress by taking actions such as humane killing or terminating or alleviating the pain and distress.”
